---
title: "Propaganda to Hate — Alam 2024"
description: "The paper asks whether propagandistic Arabic memes also tend to carry hate."
authors: ["Firoj Alam", "Md. Rafiul Biswas", "Uzair Shah", "Wajdi Zaghouani", "Georgios Mikros"]
year: 2024
venue: "arXiv:2409.07246"
source: "https://arxiv.org/abs/2409.07246"
doi: "10.48550/arxiv.2409.07246"
arxiv: "2409.07246"
licence: "CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 (arXiv)"
licence_url: "http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/alam-2024-propaganda-hate-multimodal-analysis-arabic/"
---
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# Propaganda to Hate: A Multimodal Analysis of Arabic Memes with Multi-Agent LLMs

**Authors:** [Firoj Alam](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/firoj-alam/), [Md. Rafiul Biswas](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/md-rafiul-biswas/), Uzair Shah, [Wajdi Zaghouani](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/wajdi-zaghouani/), Georgios Mikros · **Year:** 2024 · **Venue:** arXiv:2409.07246 · **Licence:** [CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 (arXiv)](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://arxiv.org/abs/2409.07246) · [PDF](https://arxiv.org/pdf/2409.07246) · [DOI 10.48550/arxiv.2409.07246](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2409.07246) · [arXiv 2409.07246](https://arxiv.org/abs/2409.07246) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W4404725356)

**Citations:** 4 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · [14](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/alam-2024-propaganda-hate-multimodal-analysis-arabic/cited-by/) in our library, of the 140884 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
The paper asks whether propagandistic Arabic memes also tend to carry hate. Earlier work treated propaganda and hate in memes as separate problems, and Arabic multimodal resources are scarce. The authors take the ArAIEval-2024 propagandistic meme dataset (about 3k memes) and add two layers: a coarse hateful/not-hateful label and a fine-grained label. Hateful memes get one of eight attack types. Non-hateful memes are marked as humor, sarcasm or other. To label the data cheaply, three commercial LLMs act as independent zero-shot annotators, and GPT-4o acts as a consolidator that resolves their disagreements. Each agent is checked against a human-labelled test set. Claude 3.5 Sonnet agrees moderately with the human and is used to label the train and dev splits. In the test set, roughly a third of the propagandistic memes are hateful, so the two phenomena are linked but not the same. Text, image and fusion classifiers give baselines. Binary detection reaches about 0.70 macro-F1, while fine-grained hate classification remains very weak.

## Key points
- Base data: ArAIEval-2024 memes from Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and Pinterest, labelled about 40% propagandistic and 60% not. Text was extracted with EasyOCR, and the data is split 70/10/20.
- Annotator agents were GPT-4o, Gemini 1.5 Pro and Claude 3.5 Sonnet, with GPT-4o as consolidator. The test set was labelled by a single experienced human annotator.
- The labels are heavily skewed. Train has 212 hateful vs 1,931 not-hateful memes, and dev has 32 vs 280. In the test set, 56 of the 171 propagandistic memes are hateful.
- Binary results:
  - AraBERT text model: accuracy ≈0.82, macro-F1 0.705.
  - ConvNeXt-tiny image model: macro-F1 0.669.
  - ConvNeXt + AraBERT fusion: macro-F1 0.709.
  - A balanced 500/500 subset with the fusion model also gives macro-F1 0.709.
- Fine-grained results with the fusion model are poor. The eight-way hateful task scores only around 0.17–0.22, and the non-hateful task (humor vs sarcasm) reaches macro-F1 0.537.

## Interesting ideas
- The annotation runs in two phases. Several models label independently, then a separate consolidator sees all their labels and makes the final call, mirroring a human annotate-then-adjudicate workflow. — For Mova (learn): The witness-parser silver pipeline could add an explicit adjudicator step for disagreeing parses, and log its reasons so each merged arc stays explainable.
- Each LLM annotator is scored against a small human-gold set before any of them is trusted to label the large training splits. This keeps the choice of annotator grounded in measured agreement. — For Mova (learn): Before promoting an LLM teacher tier to produce training data, measure it on a hand-checked held-out set, and keep that set fixed as a control.
- Labels are hierarchical: a coarse decision is made first, and the fine-grained label is chosen only within the branch that decision opens. Even non-offensive content gets subtypes such as humor vs sarcasm. — For Mova (frames): Speech-act and irony detection in prag could first decide literal vs non-literal, then pick sarcasm or humor only on that branch, which shrinks the label space at each step.
- The hate definition depends on the target: attacking a group that itself spreads hate, such as a terrorist organization, does not count. — For Mova (frames): Evaluative or hostile frames could carry the target's role and type as an explicit slot, so judgments depend on who is acted upon rather than on loaded words.
- Imbalance is checked by rerunning the model on a balanced subset. This tests whether the skew alone explains the scores. — For Mova (learn): Add a class-balanced rerun as a routine control in Mova evaluations, to separate real gains from effects of label frequency.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

Fields: [Linguistics & languages](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/linguistics/)

Topics: [Semitic languages](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/semitic-languages/) · [Vision & language](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/multimodal/)

## Cite

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@misc{alam2024propaganda,
  title = {{Propaganda to Hate: A Multimodal Analysis of Arabic Memes with Multi-Agent LLMs}},
  author = {Alam, Firoj and Biswas, Md. Rafiul and Shah, Uzair and Zaghouani, Wajdi and Mikros, Georgios},
  year = {2024},
  doi = {10.48550/arxiv.2409.07246},
  eprint = {2409.07246},
  archivePrefix = {arXiv},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2409.07246}
}
```

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## References

32 references, 9 of them with a card of ours. ↗ leads to the work, «find» searches for one we have no id for yet.

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