---
title: "Combining BERT with Static Word Embeddings for Categorizing"
description: "The authors test whether adding static word embeddings can still improve these models. 27 references, cited by 8 papers here."
authors: ["Israa Alghanmi", "Luis Espinosa Anke", "Steven Schockaert"]
year: 2020
venue: "Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop on Noisy User-generated Text (W-NUT 2020)"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/2020.wnut-1.5/"
doi: "10.18653/v1/2020.wnut-1.5"
licence: "CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/alghanmi-2020-combining-bert-static-word-embeddings/"
---
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# Combining BERT with Static Word Embeddings for Categorizing Social Media

**Authors:** [Israa Alghanmi](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/israa-alghanmi/), [Luis Espinosa Anke](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/luis-espinosa-anke/) and [Steven Schockaert](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/steven-schockaert/) · **Year:** 2020 · **Venue:** [Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop on Noisy User-generated Text (W-NUT 2020)](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/wnut/) ([Workshop on Noisy User-generated Text 2020](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/wnut/2020/)) · **Publisher:** [Association for Computational Linguistics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/association-for-computational-linguistics/) · **Licence:** [CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/2020.wnut-1.5/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/2020.wnut-1.5.pdf) · [DOI 10.18653/v1/2020.wnut-1.5](https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/2020.wnut-1.5) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W3099475240)

**Citations:** 32 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · [8](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/alghanmi-2020-combining-bert-static-word-embeddings/cited-by/) in our library, of the 149,439 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
Pre-trained language models such as BERT perform well on social media classification, even though their training data (Wikipedia, news) looks very different from tweets. AraBERT is a striking case: it handles posts written in Arabic dialects despite being trained mostly on Modern Standard Arabic. The authors test whether adding static word embeddings can still improve these models. Their classifier works at the sentence level and has two branches:

- **BERT branch:** the contextual vectors of a fine-tuned BERT are averaged into one sentence vector.
- **Static branch:** a CNN or LSTM reads static word vectors and produces a second sentence vector.

The two vectors are concatenated, passed through dropout and fed to a softmax layer. BERT is fine-tuned first and then frozen while the rest is trained.

Across four Arabic and four English tweet benchmarks, the hybrid usually beats the fine-tuned LM by roughly one F1 point. Embeddings trained on Wikipedia help about as much as Twitter-trained ones. The gain therefore seems to come from complementary lexical information, not from domain match. This matters for low-resource languages and fast-changing vocabulary, where retraining an LM is costly.

## Key points
- **Models and embeddings:** AraBERTv0.1 and BERT base uncased, combined with AraVec CBOW vectors (300-d, Twitter and Wikipedia versions) and GloVe vectors (100-d, Twitter and Wikipedia versions).
- **Arabic data:**
  - AJGT: 1,800 tweets
  - SemEval-2017 Task 4 Arabic subtask A: 10,126 tweets
  - L-HSAB: 5,846 tweets
  - ArsenTD-Lev: 4,000 tweets
- **English data:**
  - SemEval-2018 Task 3 irony: 4,618 tweets
  - OffensEval 2019: 14,100 tweets
  - SemEval-2016 Task 6 climate stance: 564 tweets
  - SemEval-2019 Task 5 hate speech: 13,000 tweets
- **Typical gains (F1):**
  - SemEval-2017 Arabic: 63.1 → 64.3
  - L-HSAB: 71.0 → 72.1
  - Irony: 67.3 → 68.4
  - Stance: 52.9 → 54.6
- **Exceptions:**
  - On the English Hate set, the hybrid falls below BERT (50.6 → about 48). The authors blame overfitting caused by a train/test mismatch in annotation and tweet length.
  - On ArsenTD-Lev, only the LSTM variant helps (52.2 vs 51.8). The CNN variant drops to 49.2.
- **Evaluation setup:** the BERT baseline is the best of three runs. Hybrids are averaged over five runs with min/max reported, which makes the comparison conservative toward the baseline.

## Interesting ideas
- Fusing at the sentence level (averaged BERT vectors concatenated with a CNN/LSTM summary of static vectors) avoids aligning wordpieces to words, so two tokenization schemes can coexist without a merging network.
- Training in two stages (fine-tune the big model, freeze it, then train only the small add-on and the joint classifier) was more robust to overfitting than joint training on small data.
- Comparing in-domain (Twitter) embeddings with out-of-domain (Wikipedia) ones acted as a control. It showed that the improvement was not caused by the assumed domain effect.
- Static vectors are cheap to retrain, so they can cover rare and emerging words (such as trending hashtags) that a frozen LM handles poorly.

## For Mova

How these ideas could serve Mova, our small open language model — its files, stages and tests:

- **I1** (frames): a speech-act or irony classifier in prag could combine a transformer sentence vector with features built from our own word-level analysis, without forcing the two tokenizations to agree.
- **I2** (learn): when adding a new feature branch on top of gparse, we can freeze the trained parser and fit only the new head, so silver-data noise cannot damage the base model.
- **I3** (learn): every claimed gain from "domain-specific" resources should be tested against a generic-resource ablation, in the spirit of our negative controls.
- **I4** (tokens): the tagger and lemmatizer in crate en could use a regularly refreshed static lexicon as a fallback for unseen or rare forms, instead of retraining the whole model.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

## Institutions

- [Cardiff University](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/cardiff-university/) — University, Cardiff, United Kingdom · 23 works · 2,549 citations

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## Cite

Cite as: Israa Alghanmi, Luis Espinosa Anke and Steven Schockaert. 2020. Combining BERT with Static Word Embeddings for Categorizing Social Media. Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop on Noisy User-generated Text (W-NUT 2020).

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{alghanmi2020combining,
  title = {{Combining BERT with Static Word Embeddings for Categorizing Social Media}},
  author = {Israa Alghanmi, Luis Espinosa Anke and Steven Schockaert},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop on Noisy User-generated Text (W-NUT 2020)},
  year = {2020},
  doi = {10.18653/v1/2020.wnut-1.5},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/2020.wnut-1.5}
}
```

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## References

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*Updated 2 November 2026*