--- title: "Take the Hint — Bahar 2023" description: "Arabic script usually leaves out short vowels and other diacritics, so a single written form can stand for many words." authors: ["Parnia Bahar", "Mattia Di Gangi", "Nick Rossenbach", "Mohammad Zeineldeen"] year: 2023 venue: "arXiv:2306.03557" source: "https://arxiv.org/abs/2306.03557" doi: "10.48550/arxiv.2306.03557" arxiv: "2306.03557" licence: "arXiv — non-exclusive license to distribute" licence_url: "http://arxiv.org/licenses/nonexclusive-distrib/1.0/" summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License" canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/bahar-2023-take-hint-improving-arabic-diacritization/" --- [Elamur Research](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/) · [this page in HTML](https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/bahar-2023-take-hint-improving-arabic-diacritization/) [home](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/) / [papers](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/) / [2023](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/2023/page/7/) / Take the Hint: Improving Arabic Diacritization with Partially-Diacritized Text # Take the Hint: Improving Arabic Diacritization with Partially-Diacritized Text **Authors:** Parnia Bahar, Mattia Di Gangi, [Nick Rossenbach](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/nick-rossenbach/), Mohammad Zeineldeen · **Year:** 2023 · **Venue:** arXiv:2306.03557 · **Licence:** [arXiv — non-exclusive license to distribute](http://arxiv.org/licenses/nonexclusive-distrib/1.0/) **Links:** [Publisher's page](https://arxiv.org/abs/2306.03557) · [PDF](https://arxiv.org/pdf/2306.03557) · [DOI 10.48550/arxiv.2306.03557](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2306.03557) · [arXiv 2306.03557](https://arxiv.org/abs/2306.03557) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W4385823509) **Citations:** 2 citations (openalex-snapshot · 2026-10-14) · [3](#cited-by) in our library, of the 140884 papers whose bibliographies we read ## Summary Arabic script usually leaves out short vowels and other diacritics, so a single written form can stand for many words. Automatic diacritization restores these marks, which helps learners and downstream systems such as TTS and ASR. Earlier systems mostly worked from fully bare text. The authors argue that a production pipeline can do better if a person first marks a few ambiguous words. They propose 2SDiac, a character-level classifier with two inputs. The first input is the bare letters. The second is an aligned sequence of optional diacritics, where a \ symbol means no hint. They train it with Guided Learning: reference diacritics are copied into the input and then randomly hidden at rates from 0% to 100%. The models are BiLSTM and self-attention networks, with an optional light autoregressive output layer. They are evaluated on Tashkeela, ATB and WikiNews. Even when given no hints at test time, 2SDiac clearly beats the single-source baselines. It reaches state-of-the-art-level error rates with 4.9M parameters, while competing systems use 13M to over 800M. Hints also improve predictions beyond the positions that were marked. ## Key points - On the Tashkeela test set (DER with case ending, no hints at test), the BiLSTM baseline drops from 3.2 to 2.0 with 2SDiac. The self-attention baseline drops from 2.9 to 2.0, and to 1.9 when autoregression is added. - The best 2SDiac variant reaches DER 1.9 and WER 5.6. It is close to the BERT-like system of [20] (1.9 / 5.5) and to the hierarchical D3 model (1.8 / 5.3), while cutting parameters by more than 60%. - Data: - Tashkeela, filtered version: 50k / 2.5k / 2.5k sentences. - LDC Arabic Treebanks (ATB) parts 1–3, with the standard Diab et al. split: 15.8k / 1.9k / 1.9k. - The WikiNews test set, with what the authors present as the first results from models trained only on public data. - The output space has 15 diacritic classes, and each character receives 0, 1 or 2 marks. - Guided Learning uses precomputed copies of the training and dev data at masking rates λ = 0.0, 0.1, …, 1.0, which are shuffled together. Evaluation uses λ = 1 (no hints) unless stated otherwise. ## Interesting ideas - Optional side information is fed as a second embedding stream aligned to the main input and summed with it, with a \ symbol meaning "unknown"; one model then serves both hinted and unhinted inputs without changing sequence length. — For Mova (tokens): the tagger could take an aligned stream of optional known tags (from a lexicon, user, or LLM teacher) as added embeddings, so partial certainty steers the full sequence instead of being forced afterwards. - Training on copies of the gold labels hidden at many different rates makes the model solve a range of tasks, from pure copying to full prediction, and this improved accuracy even when no hints were given. — For Mova (learn): when training gparse or the tagger, inject randomly masked gold arcs or tags as inputs during training, both as a regulariser and to prepare the model for partial silver annotations. - Hints enter at the first layer, not only by forcing outputs, so a single marked position can correct predictions at neighbouring positions. — For Mova (tree): feeding a few trusted arcs (e.g., ones all witness parsers agree on) as input features, rather than as hard constraints, could let them fix related attachments elsewhere in the sentence. - The authors measured how many output positions change beyond the ones that were hinted, which shows how far a hint spreads. — For Mova (learn): when testing repair rules or teacher corrections, count the knock-on changes at other tokens or arcs, and compare against a negative control in which the hint is random. - Autoregression was added by widening the existing output layer to also take the previous prediction's embedding, which keeps model size nearly unchanged while allowing beam search. — For Mova (tokens): a cheap way to add label-to-label dependency to a per-token tagger without adding a full decoder. *Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.* Fields: [Linguistics & languages](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/linguistics/) ## Cited by Cited by 3 papers of our library cite it (of the 140884 whose bibliographies we read); 2 of them have a page here, 1 not yet. - [Do Diacritics Matter? Evaluating the Impact of Arabic Diacritics on Tokenization and LLM Benchmarks](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/aclbulk-2026-inoue-do-diacritics-matter-evaluating-impact/) - [Sadeed: Advancing Arabic Diacritization Through Small Language Model](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/aldallal-2025-sadeed-advancing-arabic-diacritization-through/) ## Cite The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work. ```bibtex @misc{bahar2023take, title = {{Take the Hint: Improving Arabic Diacritization with Partially-Diacritized Text}}, author = {Bahar, Parnia and Gangi, Mattia Di and Rossenbach, Nick and Zeineldeen, Mohammad}, year = {2023}, doi = {10.48550/arxiv.2306.03557}, eprint = {2306.03557}, archivePrefix = {arXiv}, url = {https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2306.03557} } ``` - [← previous Synthetic Data Generation with Large Language Models for Text Classification: Potential and Limitations](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/li-2023-synthetic-data-generation-large-language/) - [next → Taqyim: Evaluating Arabic NLP Tasks Using ChatGPT Models](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/alyafeai-2023-taqyim-evaluating-arabic-nlp-tasks/) - [↑ back to papers of 2023](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/2023/page/7/) ## References 37 references, 14 of them with a card of ours. ↗ leads to the work, «find» searches for one we have no id for yet. 1. 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