---
title: "Graph-to-Sequence Learning using Gated Graph — Beck 2018"
description: "Many NLP tasks require turning a graph into text. Examples include generating sentences from semantic graphs or translating a source sentence annotated…"
authors: ["Daniel Beck", "Gholamreza Haffari", "Trevor Cohn"]
year: 2018
venue: "Proceedings of the 56th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/P18-1026/"
doi: "10.18653/v1/p18-1026"
licence: "CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/beck-2018-graph-sequence-learning-gated-graph/"
---
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# Graph-to-Sequence Learning using Gated Graph Neural Networks

**Authors:** Daniel Beck, [Gholamreza Haffari](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/gholamreza-haffari/), [Trevor Cohn](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/trevor-cohn/) · **Year:** 2018 · **Venue:** Proceedings of the 56th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) · **Licence:** [CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/P18-1026/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/P18-1026.pdf) · [DOI 10.18653/v1/p18-1026](https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/p18-1026) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W2798749466)

**Citations:** 371 citations (openalex-snapshot · 2026-10-14) · [85](#cited-by) in our library, of the 140884 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary

Many NLP tasks require turning a graph into text. Examples include generating sentences from semantic graphs or translating a source sentence annotated with a syntactic tree. Earlier methods had drawbacks. Grammar-based systems need node–token alignments, and linearising the graph throws away structure. Earlier neural models still leaned on RNN encoders. The authors propose a graph-to-sequence (g2s) encoder-decoder whose encoder is a Gated Graph Neural Network (GGNN). It is paired with a Levi graph transformation that turns every labelled edge into an extra node. This keeps the number of parameters small regardless of how many edge labels exist, and it gives edges their own context-dependent hidden states that the decoder can attend to. Reverse and self-loop edges plus root-distance positional embeddings preserve both bidirectional information flow and hierarchy. The model is tested on AMR-to-text generation and on syntax-aware NMT (English–German, English–Czech), where it beats strong s2s baselines without any RNN encoder. For NMT, adding edges between adjacent words replaces sequential modelling. The work shows that linguistic biases can be injected through input graph transformations alone, without redesigning the network.

## Key points

- **Architecture:**
  - The encoder is a GGNN with tied parameters across layers, extended with bias terms and neighbourhood normalisation.
  - The decoder is a 2-layer LSTM with bilinear (Luong) attention.
  - The model is implemented in MXNet on the Sockeye toolkit, with code at github.com/beckdaniel/acl2018_graph2seq.
- **Levi graph transformation:**
  - AMR has roughly 100 edge labels, which would make per-label GGNN parameters explode. After the transformation, only three edge types remain: default, reverse and self.
  - There is no need to collapse any edge labels, which sets this approach apart from the earlier work of Bastings et al. (2017) and of Marcheggiani and Titov (2017).
- **English–Czech single-model results:**
  - g2s+ (the variant with sequential edges) reached 9.8 BLEU, compared with 8.9 for s2s and 9.6 for BiRNN+GCN from Bastings et al. (2017).
  - The ensembles score 11.7 BLEU, against 11.3 for s2s.
  - Single models have about 38–39M parameters each.
- **chrF++ results:** On this metric, PB-SMT scored best among single models (36.4) for both language pairs. On En-Cs, the s2s baseline also beat g2s+ on chrF++, so the gains do not hold across all metrics.
- **Limitations noted by the authors:**
  - The number of GGNN layers is fixed, regardless of graph size.
  - Nodes and edge labels share one vocabulary and embedding space.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

Fields: [Natural language processing](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/nlp/)

Topics: [Machine translation](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/machine-translation/)

## Cited by

Cited by

85 papers of our library cite it (of the 140884 whose bibliographies we read); 9 of them have a page here, 76 not yet.

- [Graph Pre-training for AMR Parsing and Generation](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/bai-2022-graph-pre-training-amr-parsing/)
- [Factorising AMR generation through syntax](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/cao-2019-factorising-amr-generation-through-syntax/)
- [ParaAMR: A Large-Scale Syntactically Diverse Paraphrase Dataset by AMR Back-Translation](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/huang-2023-paraamr-large-scale-syntactically-diverse/)
- [Text Generation from Knowledge Graphs with Graph Transformers](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/kedziorski-2019-text-generation-knowledge-graphs-graph/)
- [Text Generation from Discourse Representation Structures](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/liu-2021-text-generation-discourse-representation-structures/)
- [Investigating Pretrained Language Models for Graph-to-Text Generation](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/ribeiro-2021-investigating-pretrained-language-models-graph/)
- [Semantic Neural Machine Translation Using AMR](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/song-2019-semantic-neural-machine-translation-amr/)
- [AMR-To-Text Generation with Graph Transformer](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/wang-2020-amr-text-generation-graph-transformer/)
- [A Comprehensive Survey on Graph Neural Networks](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/wu-2019-comprehensive-survey-graph-neural-networks/)

## Cite

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{beck2018graph,
  title = {{Graph-to-Sequence Learning using Gated Graph Neural Networks}},
  author = {Beck, Daniel and Haffari, Gholamreza and Cohn, Trevor},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 56th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)},
  year = {2018},
  doi = {10.18653/v1/p18-1026},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/p18-1026}
}
```

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