---
title: "Shamela: A Large-Scale Historical Arabic Corpus (2016)"
description: "The authors built a historical corpus from the Al-Maktaba Al-Shamela digital library: over 6,000 texts… 30 references, cited by 11 papers here."
authors: ["Yonatan Belinkov", "Alexander Magidow", "Maxim Romanov", "Avi Shmidman", "Moshe Koppel"]
year: 2016
venue: "Proceedings of the Workshop on Language Technology Resources and Tools for Digital Humanities (LT4DH)"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/W16-4007/"
licence: "CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/belinkov-2016-shamela-large-scale-historical-arabic/"
---
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# Shamela: A Large-Scale Historical Arabic Corpus

**Authors:** [Yonatan Belinkov](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/yonatan-belinkov/), [Alexander Magidow](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/alexander-magidow/), [Maxim Romanov](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/maxim-romanov/), [Avi Shmidman](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/avi-shmidman/) and [Moshe Koppel](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/moshe-koppel/) · **Year:** 2016 · **Venue:** Proceedings of the Workshop on Language Technology Resources and Tools for Digital Humanities (LT4DH) · **Publisher:** [International Committee on Computational Linguistics (ICCL)](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/international-committee-on-computational-linguistics-iccl/) · **Licence:** [CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/W16-4007/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/W16-4007.pdf) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W2566987387)

**Citations:** 14 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · [11](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/belinkov-2016-shamela-large-scale-historical-arabic/cited-by/) in our library, of the 149,439 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
Arabic has a written record spanning more than fourteen centuries, but existing corpora mostly cover Modern Standard Arabic or say little about when their texts were written. The authors built a historical corpus from the Al-Maktaba Al-Shamela digital library: over 6,000 texts and roughly 1 billion words, ranging from the 7th century to the present. They cleaned inconsistent metadata semi-automatically, with scripts proposing duplicates that people then resolved. Texts were dated by the author's year of death, and the whole collection was processed with MADAMIRA to obtain lemmas and other morphological analyses. Two enhancements follow. The first is large-scale detection of approximately matching parallel passages, which reveals how common unmarked quotation is. The second is a language-model-based method for estimating dates of about 1,200 undated works. Case studies show what the resource enables. Arabic words stay in use far longer than English words in COHA. A date-sorted concordance also traces the numerical sense of ḥawālay back to a medieval author, contradicting a popular "say/don't say" claim. The corpus gives linguists, digital humanists and NLP researchers quantitative, time-aware access to Arabic.

## Key points
- About 1 billion words in more than 6,100 texts. Roughly 4,900 of them are dated and total about 800 million words, with the earliest dated to 41/661 H/CE.
- MADAMIRA lemmatization reduces about 16.8 million distinct word forms to only about 95 thousand lemmas.
- For reuse detection, 18.6 million words of frequently recurring passages were removed first. In an initial pass, a third of the collection (more than 308 million words) was matched against the remainder, yielding over 5 million pairwise matches exceeding 20 words in length.
- Word lifespan averages 1124 years in Shamela (about 83% of the corpus time span). In COHA it averages 68 years (about 36%).
- An initial release is available in the RAWrabica collection on GitHub. The helper tools mARkdown (markup) and DuplAway (metadata duplicate matching) are also published.

## Interesting ideas
- Comparing the number of distinct surface forms with the number of distinct lemmas shows how much morphology fragments the vocabulary, and lemmatizing before any counting makes frequency statistics meaningful.
- Before running expensive all-pairs passage matching, the authors first remove passages that recur very often, which keeps the comparison tractable and prevents boilerplate from flooding the results.
- Recording each word's first and last dated attestation gives a cheap, interpretable diachronic signal about how stable a vocabulary is.
- A popular claim about a meaning change was tested by sorting a concordance by date and inspecting it by hand, so evidence settled the question rather than intuition.
- Automatic dating is used mainly to decide which texts deserve manual attention first, not as a final label.

## For Mova

How these ideas could serve Mova, our small open language model — its files, stages and tests:

- **I1** (tokens): Report a form-to-lemma ratio per corpus as a sanity check on the lemmatizer, and compute lexical statistics over lemmas rather than raw forms.
- **I2** (learn): Strip frequent boilerplate sentences before deduplicating silver data, so train and evaluation sets do not leak through near-identical passages.
- **I3** (world): Lexicon entries in the compiled knowledge layer could carry era or attestation-span flags, helping the reader treat archaic words in old fables correctly.
- **I4** (learn): Check rules or sense claims proposed by an LLM teacher against attested corpus examples before accepting them as training signal.
- **I5** (learn): Use parser disagreement or low confidence to rank which silver sentences go to the expensive teacher tiers or to human review.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

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## Cite

Cite as: Yonatan Belinkov, Alexander Magidow, Maxim Romanov, Avi Shmidman and Moshe Koppel. 2016. Shamela: A Large-Scale Historical Arabic Corpus. Proceedings of the Workshop on Language Technology Resources and Tools for Digital Humanities (LT4DH).

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{belinkov2016shamela,
  title = {{Shamela: A Large-Scale Historical Arabic Corpus}},
  author = {Yonatan Belinkov, Alexander Magidow, Maxim Romanov, Avi Shmidman and Moshe Koppel},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the Workshop on Language Technology Resources and Tools for Digital Humanities (LT4DH)},
  year = {2016},
  url = {https://aclanthology.org/W16-4007/}
}
```

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## References

30 references, 5 of them with a card of ours. ↗ leads to the work, «find» searches for one we have no id for yet.

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*Updated 1 November 2026*