---
title: "Automatic Identification of Rhetorical Questions — Bhattasali 2015"
description: "The paper addresses rhetorical questions: utterances that look like ordinary… 94.99% accuracy. 27 references, cited by 12 papers here."
authors: ["Shohini Bhattasali", "Jeremy Cytryn", "Elana Feldman", "Joonsuk Park"]
year: 2015
venue: "Proceedings of the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 7th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (Volume 2: Short Papers)"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/P15-2122/"
doi: "10.3115/v1/p15-2122"
licence: "CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (ACL Anthology, before 2016)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/bhattasali-2015-automatic-identification-rhetorical-questions/"
---
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# Automatic Identification of Rhetorical Questions

**Authors:** Shohini Bhattasali, Jeremy Cytryn, Elana Feldman and [Joonsuk Park](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/joonsuk-park/) · **Year:** 2015 · **Venue:** [Proceedings of the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 7th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (Volume 2: Short Papers)](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/acl/) ([ACL 2015](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/acl/2015/)) · **Publisher:** [Association for Computational Linguistics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/association-for-computational-linguistics/) · **Licence:** [CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (ACL Anthology, before 2016)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/P15-2122/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/P15-2122.pdf) · [DOI 10.3115/v1/p15-2122](https://doi.org/10.3115/v1/p15-2122) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W2251897159)

**Citations:** 22 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · [12](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/bhattasali-2015-automatic-identification-rhetorical-questions/cited-by/) in our library, of the 141,840 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
The paper addresses rhetorical questions: utterances that look like ordinary questions but are used to make a claim rather than to request information. They are easy to confuse with genuine questions, yet telling them apart matters for summarization, QA, opinion mining and information extraction. The authors work with the Switchboard Dialog Act Corpus, keeping only question utterances together with the turn just before and just after each one. Each question is represented with word unigrams and bigrams plus POS bigrams and trigrams. Context features are kept in separate groups according to position (before or after) and to whether the same or a different speaker produced them. The n-grams are filtered by a class-predictivity score, and an SVM weighted for class imbalance is trained on them. Combining the question with both neighbouring turns gives the best F1, 53.71%, about ten points above a question-only baseline. This shows that dialogue context carries real signal for spotting non-literal questions.

## Key points
- Data: Switchboard Dialog Act Corpus, with 5960 training and 2555 test questions. Only about 5% of the test questions are rhetorical, so labelling everything non-rhetorical already scores 94.99% accuracy. For that reason precision, recall and F1 are reported.
- Results by feature set:
  - Question only (baseline): F1 44.25%.
  - Question + Precedent + Subsequent: F1 53.71% (P 49.03, R 59.38, accuracy 94.87%).
  - Context alone, ignoring the question: F1 30.14%.
  - Following context was more informative than preceding context.
- Classifiers: Naive Bayes and SVMLight (cost factor set from the class ratio) were tried, and the SVM was more robust as the feature space grew. POS n-grams came from the NLTK maxent treebank tagger. Highly predictive n-grams included "you know" and "well ,".
- On a balanced 50/50 subset (670 train / 288 test), accuracy rose from 81.25% to 84.38% when context was added. McNemar's test did not reach significance there (p = 0.22) but did on the full skewed set (χ² = 30.74, p \< 0.00001).
- Fewer same-speaker context features were selected than different-speaker ones, which suggests the respondent's reaction is the stronger cue. Word n-grams were more useful than POS n-grams.

## Interesting ideas
- Context features are split into four separate groups: before or after the question, crossed with same or different speaker. The same token can therefore mean different things depending on who said it and when, which suits any dialogue-level inference.
- The authors list known linguistic markers of rhetorical questions: strong NPIs such as "lift a finger", a modal combined with negation, and "after all" or "yet". They propose an NPI lexicon as future work, offering a cheap, interpretable signal beyond plain n-grams.
- Features are ranked by maximal predictivity, the highest maximum-likelihood P(class | n-gram) over any class, and the top j per group are kept, with j chosen by cross-validation. This is a simple, transparent way to surface the most discriminative cues.
- A context-only model, which never sees the question itself, still scores above chance. It works as a probe of how much signal lives outside the target utterance.
- On a heavily skewed task, the authors add a balanced subset and a McNemar test on paired predictions instead of trusting accuracy alone. They openly report where the gain is not yet significant.

## For Mova

How these ideas could serve Mova, our small open language model — its files, stages and tests:

- **I1** (frames): The speech-act layer in prag could inspect the next turn's speaker and reaction (no answer, the asker keeps talking, a reply like "yeah") as explicit evidence when labelling a question as assertive rather than information-seeking.
- **I2** (frames): These markers could be matched as patterns over the UD tree (e.g., negation attached to a modal auxiliary, or an NPI idiom inside an interrogative clause), giving explainable triggers for a rhetorical-question speech act and its implied negative statement.
- **I3** (learn): The same score could rank candidate lexical or tree cues mined from silver data before they are turned into self-induced repair or classification rules, keeping the selection auditable.
- **I4** (learn): Evaluations could include such ablated "context-only" or "target-only" runs as controls, revealing whether a component relies on the target utterance or on its surroundings.
- **I5** (learn): Mova's evaluation suite could pair rare-phenomenon metrics (irony, rhetorical questions) with balanced test slices and paired significance tests, so small improvements are not overclaimed.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

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## Cite

Cite as: Shohini Bhattasali, Jeremy Cytryn, Elana Feldman and Joonsuk Park. 2015. Automatic Identification of Rhetorical Questions. Proceedings of the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 7th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (Volume 2: Short Papers).

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{bhattasali2015automatic,
  title = {{Automatic Identification of Rhetorical Questions}},
  author = {Shohini Bhattasali, Jeremy Cytryn, Elana Feldman and Joonsuk Park},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 7th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (Volume 2: Short Papers)},
  year = {2015},
  doi = {10.3115/v1/p15-2122},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.3115/v1/p15-2122}
}
```

- [← previous Transferring Coreference Resolvers with Posterior Regularization](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/martins-2015-transferring-coreference-resolvers-posterior-regularization/)
- [next → FDTB1, the first stage of the French Discourse Treebank project: identifying discourse connectives in a corpus](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/danlos-2015-fdtb1-premiere-etape-projet-french/)
- [↑ back to papers of 2015](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/2015/page/2/)

## References

27 references, 2 of them with a card of ours. ↗ leads to the work, «find» searches for one we have no id for yet.

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*Updated 24 October 2026*