---
title: "A Model for Processing Illocutionary Structures and"
description: "It builds on Inference Anchoring Theory (IAT), which ties three things together: dialogue units, the… 24 references, cited by 12 papers here."
authors: ["Kasia Budzynska", "Mathilde Janier", "Chris Reed", "Patrick Saint-Dizier", "Manfred Stede", "Olena Yakorska"]
year: 2014
venue: "Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC'14)"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/L14-1599/"
licence: "CC BY-NC 4.0 (ELRA, LREC proceedings)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/budzynska-2014-model-processing-illocutionary-structures-argumentation/"
---
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# A Model for Processing Illocutionary Structures and Argumentation in Debates

**Authors:** Kasia Budzynska, Mathilde Janier, [Chris Reed](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/chris-reed/), Patrick Saint-Dizier, [Manfred Stede](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/manfred-stede/) and Olena Yakorska · **Year:** 2014 · **Venue:** [Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC'14)](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/lrec/) ([LREC 2014](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/lrec/2014/)) · **Publisher:** [European Language Resources Association (ELRA)](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/european-language-resources-association-elra/) · **Licence:** [CC BY-NC 4.0 (ELRA, LREC proceedings)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/L14-1599/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/L14-1599.pdf) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W7160302604)

**Citations:** 30 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · [12](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/budzynska-2014-model-processing-illocutionary-structures-argumentation/cited-by/) in our library, of the 141,840 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
The paper tackles automatic recognition of the illocutionary structure that underlies argumentation in spoken debate, where speakers often argue indirectly, for example by asking questions rather than asserting. It builds on Inference Anchoring Theory (IAT), which ties three things together: dialogue units, the illocutionary forces that link units to their propositional content, and the inferences or conflicts between those contents. In IAT, transitions between possibly non-adjacent moves serve as anchors for argumentative relations. The development data is MM2012, a transcript corpus of the BBC Radio 4 debate show The Moral Maze. The authors propose a small taxonomy of question-like forces, including polymorphic types that deliberately combine two forces. They then implement recognition as hand-written Dislog rules driven by lexical and morphological markers. On manually annotated texts, the forces of correctly segmented units were assigned acceptably in 78% of cases once polymorphic labels are allowed. The work matters because it lets questions that carry hidden assertions enter an argument graph, which a plain dialogue-act tagger cannot do.

## Key points
- MM2012 contains about 65,000 words of The Moral Maze transcripts, a debate format the authors describe as agreement-seeking.
- IAT is compared with RST, SDRT, KoS and the SwDA tagset (over 200 tags, 60 basic). In the authors' view, none of these captures how pairs of locutions establish inference.
- The scheme defines 12 simple or polymorphic types for questions, such as RQ, AQ, PQ, ACh, PCh, PQ-AQ and RQ-PCh. These are recognised with 18 Dislog rules over cue markers like "why should", "was it" and "would you".
- About 63% of the markers point to a single force, yet just around 62% of units in the text can be considered unambiguous before any context is taken into account. The most frequent ambiguities are PQ-AQ (13%) and AQ-RQ (10%).
- Over 153 correctly segmented units, 38% were assigned a correct basic type, 40% a correct polymorphic type and 22% were wrong. About 65% of the polymorphic cases mix different strengths of assertion.

## Interesting ideas
- When cues cannot separate two forces, the system emits an explicit combined label such as RQ-AQ instead of forcing a choice, which keeps the ambiguity visible for later stages to resolve.
- A question can carry two functions at once: it asserts a belief, and it seeks agreement while lowering the speaker's commitment ("I was only asking").
- Argumentative relations are anchored in transitions between moves, which may be non-adjacent, rather than in rhetorical relations between sentences. This separates "who responded to what" from the question of "what follows from what".
- A small rule set over surface markers was chosen so that interactions between competing rules stay easy to manage and inspect.
- Evaluation is split into correct basic, correct polymorphic and wrong assignments, rather than reported as a single accuracy figure.

## For Mova

How these ideas could serve Mova, our small open language model — its files, stages and tests:

- **I1** (frames): prag could output paired speech-act labels like question-or-assertion with the cue that triggered each, letting the world stage resolve them from context.
- **I2** (frames): speech-act frames could record both an asserted proposition and a weaker commitment level, so that interrogative claims still feed arguments and implicature.
- **I3** (world): the world of a text could keep a move-transition layer, so that a later answer stage can explain which exchange established an inference or a conflict.
- **I4** (frames): cue-pattern rules for speech acts can be kept few and traceable, each firing rule logged as the explanation for the label it assigned.
- **I5** (learn): speech-act evaluations could report how often an underspecified label was right, which shows whether ambiguity is being handled honestly or just hidden.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

## Institutions

- [Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/labs/centre-national-de-la-recherche-scientifique/) — Research institute, Paris, France · 104 works · 60,877 citations
- [University of Potsdam](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/university-of-potsdam/) — University, Potsdam, Germany · 36 works · 5,236 citations
- [Institut de Recherche en Informatique de Toulouse](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/labs/institut-de-recherche-en-informatique-de-toulouse/) — Research institute, Toulouse, France · 23 works · 1,667 citations
- [University of Dundee](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/university-of-dundee/) — University, Dundee, United Kingdom · 2 works · 643 citations
- [Polish Academy of Sciences](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/government/polish-academy-of-sciences/) — Government body, Warsaw, Poland · 8 works · 512 citations

Also on the byline: [Institute of Philosophy and Sociology](https://ror.org/01pe10g60).

📚 Shelves (5): [🖥️ Computer Science](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/computer-science/) · 9,086 works · [🤖 Artificial Intelligence](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/computer-science/artificial-intelligence/) · 8,889 works · [🎭 Arts and Humanities](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/arts-and-humanities/) · 9,296 works · [🗣️ Language and Linguistics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/arts-and-humanities/language-and-linguistics/) · 9,206 works · [🤔 Philosophy](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/arts-and-humanities/philosophy/) · 211 works

🧭 Topics (1): [💬 Speech act theory](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/speech-act-theory/) · 160 works

## Cite

Cite as: Kasia Budzynska, Mathilde Janier, Chris Reed, Patrick Saint-Dizier, Manfred Stede and Olena Yakorska. 2014. A Model for Processing Illocutionary Structures and Argumentation in Debates. Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC'14).

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{budzynska2014model,
  title = {{A Model for Processing Illocutionary Structures and Argumentation in Debates}},
  author = {Kasia Budzynska, Mathilde Janier, Chris Reed, Patrick Saint-Dizier, Manfred Stede and Olena Yakorska},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC'14)},
  year = {2014},
  doi = {10.63317/52zr77iewo78},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.63317/52zr77iewo78}
}
```

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## References

24 references, 5 of them with a card of ours. ↗ leads to the work, «find» searches for one we have no id for yet.

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*Updated 24 October 2026*