---
title: "Specializing Large Language Models to Simulate Survey"
description: "Large cross-national surveys are expensive and slow. 31 references, cited by 14 papers here."
authors: ["Yong Cao", "Haijiang Liu", "Arnav Arora", "Isabelle Augenstein", "Paul Röttger", "Daniel Hershcovich"]
year: 2025
venue: "Proceedings of the 2025 Conference of the Nations of the Americas Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies (Volume 1: Long Papers)"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/2025.naacl-long.162/"
doi: "10.18653/v1/2025.naacl-long.162"
licence: "CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/cao-2025-specializing-large-language-models-simulate/"
---
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# Specializing Large Language Models to Simulate Survey Response Distributions for Global Populations

**Authors:** [Yong Cao](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/yong-cao/), Haijiang Liu, [Arnav Arora](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/arnav-arora/), [Isabelle Augenstein](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/isabelle-augenstein/), [Paul Röttger](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/paul-rottger/) and [Daniel Hershcovich](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/daniel-hershcovich/) · **Year:** 2025 · **Venue:** [Proceedings of the 2025 Conference of the Nations of the Americas Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies (Volume 1: Long Papers)](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/naacl/) ([NAACL 2025](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/naacl/2025/)) · **Publisher:** [Association for Computational Linguistics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/association-for-computational-linguistics/) · **Licence:** [CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/2025.naacl-long.162/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/2025.naacl-long.162.pdf) · [DOI 10.18653/v1/2025.naacl-long.162](https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/2025.naacl-long.162) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W4411120402)

**Citations:** 9 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · [14](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/cao-2025-specializing-large-language-models-simulate/cited-by/) in our library, of the 149,439 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
Large cross-national surveys are expensive and slow. The authors ask whether LLMs can be trained, rather than just prompted, to predict how a country's population would divide its answers across a survey question's options. They frame this as group-level distribution prediction and build datasets from the 2017–2022 wave of the World Values Survey (WVS), covering 65 countries, in English and Chinese. Questions and countries are partitioned so that some topics and regions, such as African and medium-GDP countries, stay out of training.

The method fine-tunes models on the probability mass placed on the first answer token, which is constrained to valid option letters. Training minimizes KL divergence from the real human distribution. Across seven LLMs from three families, this specialization clearly outperforms zero-shot prompting and alternative setups on both familiar and held-out countries and questions. It also transfers to the Pew Global Attitudes Survey.

Accuracy nonetheless stays modest, particularly for new questions, and the models vary less between countries than real respondents do. The study therefore shows that training improves simulation while cautioning against relying on it yet.

## Key points
- Data: WVS wave 7 (66 countries, 80,000+ respondents), filtered to 65 countries with more than 1,000 respondents. The first 259 questions are split by topic into Q1 (1–163), Q2 (164–198, religious/ethical values) and Q3 (199–259, political interest and culture). Countries are split into C1 (46), C2 (8 African) and C3 (11 medium-GDP).
- Three released datasets (two English, one Chinese), using the GlobalOpinionQA prompt template. Missing Chinese questions were translated with GLM-4. Code and data are at github.com/yongcaoplus/SimLLMCultureDist.
- Evaluation uses 1−JSD, EMD and accuracy. On the unseen Pew survey, fine-tuned Llama3 gains 19.1% and 27.4% in accuracy on the C1′ and C3 country sets.
- Ablations: KL loss works best, though Wasserstein, JS and cross-entropy losses also beat zero-shot. Shuffling option order lowers scores only slightly, so A-bias is not a major factor.
- Chinese prompts perform marginally below English ones, and the gap is not significant. No models larger than 32B were fine-tuned.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

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- [Wuhan University of Science and Technology](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/wuhan-university-of-science-and-technology/) — University, Wuhan, China · 2 works · 54 citations
- [Tübingen AI Center](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/tubingen-ai-center/) — University, Tübingen, Germany · 3 works · 30 citations

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## Cite

Cite as: Yong Cao, Haijiang Liu, Arnav Arora, Isabelle Augenstein, Paul Röttger and Daniel Hershcovich. 2025. Specializing Large Language Models to Simulate Survey Response Distributions for Global Populations. Proceedings of the 2025 Conference of the Nations of the Americas Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies (Volume 1: Long Papers).

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{cao2025specializing,
  title = {{Specializing Large Language Models to Simulate Survey Response Distributions for Global Populations}},
  author = {Yong Cao, Haijiang Liu, Arnav Arora, Isabelle Augenstein, Paul Röttger and Daniel Hershcovich},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2025 Conference of the Nations of the Americas Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies (Volume 1: Long Papers)},
  year = {2025},
  doi = {10.18653/v1/2025.naacl-long.162},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/2025.naacl-long.162}
}
```

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*Updated 30 October 2026*