---
title: "Native language Identification for Arabic Language Learners"
description: "The paper investigates Native Language Identification (NLI): inferring a writer's mother tongue from texts… 97.71% accuracy. 37 references."
authors: ["Mohamed Amine Cheragui", "Mourad Abbas", "Mohammed Mediani"]
year: 2024
venue: "Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Natural Language and Speech Processing (ICNLSP 2024)"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/2024.icnlsp-1.2/"
licence: "CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/cheragui-2024-native-language-identification-arabic-language/"
---
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# Native language Identification for Arabic Language Learners using Pre-trained Language Models

**Authors:** [Mohamed Amine Cheragui](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/mohamed-amine-cheragui/), [Mourad Abbas](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/mourad-abbas/) and [Mohammed Mediani](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/mohammed-mediani/) · **Year:** 2024 · **Venue:** [Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Natural Language and Speech Processing (ICNLSP 2024)](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/icnlsp/) ([International Conference on Natural Language and Speech Processing 2024](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/icnlsp/2024/)) · **Publisher:** [Association for Computational Linguistics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/association-for-computational-linguistics/) · **Licence:** [CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/2024.icnlsp-1.2/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/2024.icnlsp-1.2.pdf)

## Summary
The paper investigates Native Language Identification (NLI): inferring a writer's mother tongue from texts they produce in a second language, here Arabic. Earlier Arabic NLI work relied on hand-built syntactic features and SVMs and reached only about 41–50% accuracy. The authors instead fine-tune three Arabic BERT encoders (CAMeLBERT, AraBERTv0.2 and ARBERTv2) on the Arabic Learner Corpus (ALC), using one shared hyper-parameter setting. They test two kinds of classification:

* **Binary:** Arabic-L1 against all other L1s, and Arabic against each of six individual languages.
* **Multi-class:** predicting the learner's L1, and predicting the learner's level of study.

Binary separation is close to solved for all three models, with F1 around 95–97%. Multi-class performance falls sharply, mostly in macro precision, recall and F1, and CAMeLBERT is clearly the strongest model there. The authors attribute the drop to the small corpus, uneven class sizes and the harder task. The study gives a first transformer baseline for Arabic learner NLI and also shows that accuracy alone can hide weak performance on rare classes.

## Key points
- **Data:** ALC contains 1585 written and spoken texts (282,732 words) from 942 learners of 67 nationalities with 66 different L1s. It also provides 26 metadata variables (12 describe the learner, 14 describe the text).
- **Shared fine-tuning settings:** 5 epochs, batch size 8, learning rate 4.87e-5, weight decay 0.01, seed 20.
- **Binary one-vs-all (Arabic vs. the others):** CAMeLBERT reaches 97.71% accuracy and 96.82% F1. AraBERTv0.2 scores 96.21% F1 and ARBERTv2 scores 94.95% F1.
- **Multi-class L1 detection:** CAMeLBERT reaches 87.21% accuracy but only 60.43% F1. The other two models stay at or below about 36% F1.
- **Level-of-study classification:** CAMeLBERT reaches 66.13% F1. Per-level F1 rises steadily with proficiency, from 48.45% for secondary school to 66.45% for the Master's level.

## Interesting ideas
- Reporting accuracy next to macro F1 makes class imbalance visible: an 87% accuracy paired with 60% F1 shows that rare classes are being missed.
- A hard multi-way decision can be split into one-vs-all and one-vs-one binary tests, which shows which specific classes are easy or hard to tell apart.
- A corpus's own metadata (here the learner's level of study) can serve as a second prediction target at no extra annotation cost.
- Comparing several pretrained encoders under one fixed hyper-parameter set and seed isolates the effect of the backbone from tuning luck.
- The authors plan to add POS and syntactic features, echoing the earlier feature-based NLI work, because native-language transfer appears in structure, not only in word choice.

## For Mova

How these ideas could serve Mova, our small open language model — its files, stages and tests:

- **I1** (learn): Mova's tagger and parser evaluations could always pair overall scores with macro scores over rare labels, so that frequent labels do not hide failures on rare ones.
- **I2** (tree): when detecting which UD dialect or treebank convention a parse follows, pairwise tests could reveal which conventions get confused and where conversion rules are most needed.
- **I3** (answer): the school-course readers could use proficiency metadata, where available, to check whether answer quality falls on texts written by less advanced writers.
- **I4** (tree): choosing a backbone for gparse could follow the same controlled protocol before any per-model tuning.
- **I5** (tree): interpretable features drawn from UD trees, such as dependency triplets, could support explainable author or L1 profiling instead of bag-of-words signals.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

📚 Shelves (2): [🖥️ Computer Science](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/computer-science/) · 18,614 works · [🤖 Artificial Intelligence](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/computer-science/artificial-intelligence/) · 17,965 works

🧭 Topics (2): [Semitic languages](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/semitic-languages/) · 3,066 works · [🖍️ Grammatical error correction & learner language](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/grammatical-error-correction/) · 162 works

## Cite

Cite as: Mohamed Amine Cheragui, Mourad Abbas and Mohammed Mediani. 2024. Native language Identification for Arabic Language Learners using Pre-trained Language Models. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Natural Language and Speech Processing (ICNLSP 2024).

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{cheragui2024native,
  title = {{Native language Identification for Arabic Language Learners using Pre-trained Language Models}},
  author = {Mohamed Amine Cheragui, Mourad Abbas and Mohammed Mediani},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Natural Language and Speech Processing (ICNLSP 2024)},
  year = {2024},
  url = {https://aclanthology.org/2024.icnlsp-1.2/}
}
```

- [← previous mucAI at WojoodNER 2024: Arabic Named Entity Recognition with Nearest Neighbor Search](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/abdou-2024-mucai-wojoodner-2024-arabic-named/)
- [next → NLPColab at FigNews 2024 Shared Task: Challenges in Bias and Propaganda Annotation for News Media](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/rauf-2024-nlpcolab-fignews-2024-shared-task/)
- [↑ back to papers of 2024](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/2024/page/17/)

## References

37 references, 5 of them with a card of ours. ↗ leads to the work, «find» searches for one we have no id for yet.

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*Updated 2 November 2026*