--- title: "Word Association Norms, Mutual Information — Church 1990" description: "Psycholinguists have traditionally gathered word association norms by asking thousands of people to respond to a few hundred stimulus words, as in…" authors: ["Kenneth Ward Church", "Patrick Hanks"] year: 1990 source: "https://aclanthology.org/J90-1003/" licence: "CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (ACL Anthology, before 2016)" licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License" canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/church-1990-word-association-norms-mutual-information/" --- [Elamur Research](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/) · [this page in HTML](https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/church-1990-word-association-norms-mutual-information/) [home](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/) / [papers](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/) / [1990](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/1990/) / Word Association Norms, Mutual Information, and Lexicography # Word Association Norms, Mutual Information, and Lexicography **Authors:** [Kenneth Ward Church](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/kenneth-ward-church/), [Patrick Hanks](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/patrick-hanks/) · **Year:** 1990 · **Licence:** [CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (ACL Anthology, before 2016)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/) **Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/J90-1003/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/J90-1003.pdf) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W1593045043) **Citations:** 3590 citations (openalex-snapshot · 2026-10-14) · [773](#cited-by) in our library, of the 140673 papers whose bibliographies we read ## Summary Psycholinguists have traditionally gathered word association norms by asking thousands of people to respond to a few hundred stimulus words, as in Palermo and Jenkins (1964). Church and Hanks argue that this approach is expensive, small in scale and unreliable. They propose the *association ratio*, a corpus statistic derived from Fano's mutual information. It compares how often word x precedes word y within a short window against what chance would predict, so association norms can be estimated automatically for tens of thousands of words. Using Associated Press newswire, they show that high-scoring pairs capture several kinds of relation: semantic links (doctor/nurses), fixed phrases (bread and butter), compounds (United States) and verb–preposition constraints (save…from). The paper argues the measure is useful for: - language models in OCR and speech recognition, - parsing disambiguation, - information retrieval, - above all, lexicography, where the tables act as an index for organizing concordance lines into usage-based senses. The authors also note limitations. The measure relies only on distributional evidence, so it cannot tell compositional pairs from idiomatic ones, and it does not group words into syntactic classes without a separate preprocessing step. ## Key points - **Formula and settings:** I(x,y) = log2 P(x,y) / (P(x)P(y)). The window is w = 5 words. Pairs with f(x,y) ≤ 5 are discarded, and scores above roughly 3 tend to be interesting. - **Asymmetry:** unlike true mutual information, the ratio is deliberately left asymmetric so that word order is kept. For example, *save…from* occurs 176 times versus 18 for the reverse order in 1988 AP (44M words). - **Corpora:** 1987 AP (15M words), 1988 AP (36M words) and a tagged corpus of 8.6M tokens. - **Doctor example:** the top associates of *doctor* are dentists, nurses, treating, treat and hospitals. These broadly resemble the Palermo and Jenkins norms, which covered 200 stimulus words. - **Window choice:** mean and variance of word separation help pick a window size. Fixed expressions show variance 0, compounds have a separation near 1, and semantic pairs such as man/woman show high variance. *Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.* Fields: [Linguistics & languages](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/linguistics/) ## Cited by Cited by 773 papers of our library cite it (of the 140673 whose bibliographies we read); 38 of them have a page here, 735 not yet. - [Unsupervised discovery of morphologically related words based on orthographic and semantic similarity](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/aclbulk-2002-baroni-unsupervised-discovery-morphologically-related-words/) - [A Latent Variable Model Approach to PMI-based Word Embeddings](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/arora-2016-latent-variable-model-approach-pmi/) - [What determines the order of adjectives in English? 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BibTeX from the library's record of the work. ```bibtex @misc{church1990word, title = {{Word Association Norms, Mutual Information, and Lexicography}}, author = {Church, Kenneth Ward and Hanks, Patrick}, year = {1990}, doi = {10.5555/89086.89095}, url = {https://doi.org/10.5555/89086.89095} } ``` - [← previous Using Test Suites in Evaluation of Machine Translation Systems](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/king-1990-test-suites-evaluation-machine-translation/) - [↑ back to papers of 1990](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/1990/) ## References 17 references, 1 of them with a card of ours. ↗ leads to the work, «find» searches for one we have no id for yet. 1. Church, K. 1988 "A Stochastic Parts Program and Noun Phrase Parser for Unrestricted Text," Second Conference on Applied Natural Language Processing, Austin, TX. 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"Microcoding the Lexicon with Co-Occurrence Knowledge," in Zernik (ed.), Lexical Acquisition: Using On-Line Resources to Build a Lexicon, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. NOTES [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Smadja%2C+F%2E+In+press%2E+%22Microcoding+the+Lexicon+with+Co%2DOccurrence+Knowledge%2C%22+in+Zernik+%28ed%2E%29%2C+Lexical+Acquisition%3A+Using+On%2DLine+Resources+to+Build+a+Lexicon%2C+MIT+Press%2C+Cambridge%2C+MA%2E+NOTES)