---
title: "SMHD — paper by Cohan et al. (2018)"
description: "Studying how mental health conditions show up in everyday language requires large labeled collections of users… 50 references, cited by 62 papers here."
authors: ["Arman Cohan", "Bart Desmet", "Andrew Yates", "Luca Soldaini", "Sean MacAvaney", "Nazli Goharian"]
year: 2018
venue: "Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Computational Linguistics"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/C18-1126/"
licence: "CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/cohan-2018-smhd-large-scale-resource-exploring/"
---
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# SMHD: a Large-Scale Resource for Exploring Online Language Usage for Multiple Mental Health Conditions

**Authors:** [Arman Cohan](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/arman-cohan/), Bart Desmet, [Andrew Yates](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/andrew-yates/), [Luca Soldaini](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/luca-soldaini/), Sean MacAvaney and [Nazli Goharian](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/nazli-goharian/) · **Year:** 2018 · **Venue:** [Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Computational Linguistics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/coling/) ([COLING 2018](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/coling/2018/)) · **Publisher:** [Association for Computational Linguistics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/association-for-computational-linguistics/) · **Licence:** [CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/C18-1126/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/C18-1126.pdf) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W2808024810)

**Citations:** 27 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · [62](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/cohan-2018-smhd-large-scale-resource-exploring/cited-by/) in our library, of the 141,840 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
Studying how mental health conditions show up in everyday language requires large labeled collections of users, but expert annotation is costly and hard to arrange. Cohan et al. address this with SMHD (Self-reported Mental Health Diagnoses), a Reddit-based dataset built without manual labelling. They designed high-precision patterns, partly expanded with synonyms, to find users who state that they received a diagnosis. The patterns cover nine conditions aligned with DSM-5 categories. Each diagnosed user is paired with control users chosen by exclusion criteria. Posts that explicitly discuss mental health are removed, so the data reflects ordinary conversation rather than obvious signals. The authors compare diagnosed and control groups on linguistic and psychological variables measured with LIWC. They also benchmark several classifiers in binary and multi-label settings, and supervised FastText performs best overall. Compared with an earlier Twitter resource, SMHD has as much as a hundredfold more diagnosed users for each condition. It also includes users with more than one condition. This makes it suitable for data-hungry models and for studying conditions that co-occur.

## Key points
- The dataset covers nine conditions: ADHD, anxiety, autism, bipolar, depression, eating disorders, OCD, PTSD and schizophrenia.
  - Six of these are top-level DSM-5 disorders.
  - The other three (PTSD, autism, ADHD) sit one level lower in the taxonomy.
- Diagnosed-user counts range from 14,139 for depression and 10,098 for ADHD down to 598 for eating disorders. The comparable Twitter dataset by Coppersmith et al. (2015a) has only about 100–400 users per condition.
- SMHD extends the approach behind RSDD (Yates et al., 2017) in two ways:
  - RSDD covered depression only, while SMHD covers multiple conditions.
  - SMHD uses a wider set of matching patterns.
- The baselines are logistic regression, XGBoost, linear SVM, supervised FastText and a Kim (2014)-style CNN.
  - The first three use tf-idf bag-of-words features.
  - The CNN reads each user's concatenated posts, truncated to 15,000 tokens.
- FastText achieves the top F1 for most conditions and in the multi-label setting. The exceptions are bipolar, where SVM wins, and eating disorders, where the CNN wins. All models struggle on the smallest classes (OCD, schizophrenia, eating).

## Interesting ideas
- **Weak labels from self-disclosure.** Explicit first-person statements (e.g., "I was diagnosed with X") can be matched with strict, precision-oriented patterns to produce labels at scale. This could be reused wherever people openly state an attribute about themselves, such as profession, location or native language.
- **Synonym-expanded patterns.** Growing the patterns with synonyms taken from reliable sources raises recall and captures more linguistic variety without much loss of label quality. This is a cheap way to widen any rule-based data collection step.
- **Removing the giveaway signal.** Deleting posts that directly discuss the target topic forces models to learn from general language rather than obvious keywords. This makes evaluation more honest and applies to any task where labels leak through topical words.
- **Diagnosing the precision–recall balance.** The authors observe that bag-of-words models favor precision while neural models are more balanced. Reporting this trade-off, not just F1, helps reveal overfitting to a few strongly indicative features.
- **Testing whether sampling hurts.** The CNN sees only part of each user's history and underperforms the simpler FastText, which sees all posts. This suggests that subsampling for efficiency should be checked explicitly as a possible cause of weaker results.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

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- [Max Planck Institute for Informatics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/labs/max-planck-institute-for-informatics/) — Research institute, Saarbrücken, Germany · 11 works · 4,289 citations
- [Ghent University](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/ghent-university/) — University, Ghent, Belgium · 18 works · 2,888 citations
- [Max Planck Society](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/labs/max-planck-society/) — Research institute, Munich, Germany · 10 works · 42,142 citations

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## Cite

Cite as: Arman Cohan, Bart Desmet, Andrew Yates, Luca Soldaini, Sean MacAvaney and Nazli Goharian. 2018. SMHD: a Large-Scale Resource for Exploring Online Language Usage for Multiple Mental Health Conditions. Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Computational Linguistics.

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{cohan2018smhd,
  title = {{SMHD: a Large-Scale Resource for Exploring Online Language Usage for Multiple Mental Health Conditions}},
  author = {Arman Cohan, Bart Desmet, Andrew Yates, Luca Soldaini, Sean MacAvaney and Nazli Goharian},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Computational Linguistics},
  year = {2018},
  url = {https://aclanthology.org/C18-1126/}
}
```

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*Updated 24 October 2026*