---
title: "Harms of Gender Exclusivity and Challenges in — Dev 2021"
description: "Most NLP research on gender bias assumes there are only two genders."
authors: ["Sunipa Dev", "Masoud Monajatipoor", "Anaelia Ovalle", "Arjun Subramonian", "Jeff Phillips", "Kai-Wei Chang"]
year: 2021
venue: "Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/2021.emnlp-main.150/"
doi: "10.18653/v1/2021.emnlp-main.150"
arxiv: "2108.12084"
licence: "CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/dev-2021-harms-gender-exclusivity-challenges-non/"
---
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# Harms of Gender Exclusivity and Challenges in Non-Binary Representation in Language Technologies

**Authors:** [Sunipa Dev](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/sunipa-dev/), Masoud Monajatipoor, Anaelia Ovalle, Arjun Subramonian, Jeff Phillips, [Kai-Wei Chang](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/kai-wei-chang/) · **Year:** 2021 · **Venue:** Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing · **Licence:** [CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/2021.emnlp-main.150/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/2021.emnlp-main.150.pdf) · [DOI 10.18653/v1/2021.emnlp-main.150](https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/2021.emnlp-main.150) · [arXiv 2108.12084](https://arxiv.org/abs/2108.12084) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W3198409578)

**Citations:** 123 citations (openalex-snapshot · 2026-10-14) · [105](#cited-by) in our library, of the 140884 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
Most NLP research on gender bias assumes there are only two genders. This leaves non-binary people invisible and exposed to harm. Dev et al. study how that binary assumption plays out in English language technologies. They first describe how complex gender identity and its language are, including singular they, neopronouns such as xe and ze, the honorific Mx., and chosen names. They then survey non-binary people who have some familiarity with AI to learn which representational and allocational harms they expect from common NLP tasks. The main harms reported are misgendering and erasure. Next, the authors probe GloVe and BERT. Words and pronouns tied to non-binary identities are rare in training text, so the models learn unstable, low-quality representations for them, sometimes with derogatory associations. In a pronoun prediction test, BERT does fairly well with he and she, is weak with they, and fails completely on neopronouns, even when the context makes the correct pronoun clear. The authors argue that fixes must be developed bottom-up together with affected communities. They also warn that treating non-binary as a single third category is harmful in itself.

## Key points
- The paper combines a theoretical account of gender in English with an IRB-reviewed survey of non-binary people (granted Exempt status, all questions optional). The analysis centers on misgendering and erasure.
- BERT pronoun prediction accuracy: his-he 0.861, her-she 0.785, their-they 0.521, xir-xe 0.0, zir-ze 0.0. The aggregated probabilities of the correct pronoun follow the same pattern, from 0.670 for he down to about 1e-05 for xe. The authors attribute the neopronoun results partly to BERT treating these pronouns as out of vocabulary.
- Static (GloVe) and contextual (BERT) representations of non-binary-associated terms suffer from underrepresentation in data. This creates a cycle in which models keep reinforcing erasure.
- The paper credits earlier mitigation work, namely the GICoref coreference dataset (Cao and Daumé III) and they-substitution rewriting (Sun et al., 2021). It notes two remaining problems: neopronouns have too little real-world data, and modeling gender as fixed, discrete classes is questionable.
- Recommendations: involve affected people in annotation and human-in-the-loop processes, monitor deployed systems for harms over time, report performance for non-binary users transparently, and give users ways to obtain recourse and give feedback.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

Fields: [Natural language processing](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/nlp/)

## Cited by

Cited by

105 papers of our library cite it (of the 140884 whose bibliographies we read); 4 of them have a page here, 101 not yet.

- [PaLM 2 Technical Report](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/anil-2023-palm-2-technical-report/)
- [Adapting Psycholinguistic Research for LLMs: Gender-inclusive Language in a Coreference Context](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/bartl-2025-adapting-psycholinguistic-research-llms-gender/)
- [Recognition of They/Them as Singular Personal Pronouns in Coreference Resolution](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/baumler-2022-recognition-they-them-as-singular/)
- [GLM-130B: An Open Bilingual Pre-trained Model](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/zeng-2022-glm-130b-open-bilingual-pre/)

## Cite

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{dev2021harms,
  title = {{Harms of Gender Exclusivity and Challenges in Non-Binary Representation in Language Technologies}},
  author = {Dev, Sunipa and Monajatipoor, Masoud and Ovalle, Anaelia and Subramonian, Arjun and Phillips, Jeff and Chang, Kai-Wei},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing},
  year = {2021},
  doi = {10.18653/v1/2021.emnlp-main.150},
  eprint = {2108.12084},
  archivePrefix = {arXiv},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/2021.emnlp-main.150}
}
```

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58. Appendix: Harms of Gender Exclusivity and Challenges in Non-Binary Representation in Language Technologies A Sexual Orientation Queer Bisexual Asexual Pansexual Straight Gay Questioning I don’t want to answer this question Survey Below, we provide the full Survey on Harms, our rationale for each que… [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Appendix%3A+Harms+of+Gender+Exclusivity+and+Challenges+in+Non%2DBinary+Representation+in+Language+Technologies+A+Sexual+Orientation+Queer+Bisexual+Asexual+Pansexual+Straight+Gay+Questioning+I+don%E2%80%99t+want+t)