---
title: "EFLLex — paper by Dürlich and François (2018)"
description: "The result describes 15,280 English words and was compared with MRC, BNC and EVP. 29 references, cited by 19 papers here."
authors: ["Luise Dürlich", "Thomas François"]
year: 2018
venue: "Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2018)"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/L18-1140/"
licence: "CC BY-NC 4.0 (ELRA, LREC proceedings)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/durlich-2018-efllex-graded-lexical-resource-learners/"
---
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# EFLLex: A Graded Lexical Resource for Learners of English as a Foreign Language

**Authors:** [Luise Dürlich](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/luise-durlich/) and [Thomas François](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/thomas-francois/) · **Year:** 2018 · **Venue:** [Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2018)](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/lrec/) ([LREC 2018](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/lrec/2018/)) · **Publisher:** [European Language Resources Association (ELRA)](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/european-language-resources-association-elra/) · **Licence:** [CC BY-NC 4.0 (ELRA, LREC proceedings)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/L18-1140/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/L18-1140.pdf) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W2793317998)

**Citations:** 27 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · [19](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/durlich-2018-efllex-graded-lexical-resource-learners/cited-by/) in our library, of the 141,840 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
Curriculum designers and teachers have to decide which English words to teach at each stage. Native-speaker frequency lists such as the BNC do not match what learners actually read and say nothing about proficiency levels. Expert lists such as the English Vocabulary Profile assign each word to a single level. EFLLex, the English member of the CEFRLex family (after French and Swedish), takes a different view: it treats vocabulary learning as continuous and gives each word a frequency distribution across CEFR levels.

The authors built a corpus of 1,971 reading-comprehension texts from textbooks, graded readers and online materials, each levelled by its publisher. Five POS taggers were compared on a manually adjudicated sample, and NLP4J was chosen to lemmatize and tag the whole corpus. Per-level frequencies were then computed with a robust estimator, and the output was manually post-edited.

The result describes 15,280 English words and was compared with MRC, BNC and EVP. It shows where a word already appears below its nominal level and ranks words within a level. This makes it useful for language teaching and computer-assisted language learning.

## Key points
- The corpus has 1,971 texts and 486,178 words, drawn from 17 textbooks, 33 graded readers and 7 online sources. It covers levels A1–C1 only, since C2 material was scarce, and B2 and C1 are the largest subcorpora.
- The tagger candidates were TreeTagger, a FreeLing HMM (TnT-style) tagger, the Stanford tagger, SVMTool and NLP4J. NLP4J scored best with 95.88% fully correct tokens.
- Two experts rated the tagger output with five error categories:
  - correct;
  - wrong POS;
  - wrong lemma;
  - both wrong;
  - segmentation error.
- Agreement between the experts was weak (Cohen's Kappa from 0.378 to 0.627), so they built an agreed reference annotation before scoring.
- Frequencies are counted per lemma+POS rather than per inflected form, so that verbs are not undercounted. Per-level counts reveal contrasts, for example *write* occurs 934 times at A1 while *explore* occurs only 20 times.

## Interesting ideas
- Representing a word's difficulty as a distribution over levels, rather than a single label, keeps information about early exposure and allows ranking within a level.
- Choosing a tagger by error type (POS vs lemma vs segmentation), not overall accuracy, shows which failure would actually harm the resource.
- When annotator agreement is low, experts reconcile their judgments into one adjudicated reference before scoring the systems.
- Counting at the lemma+POS level avoids splitting the mass of highly inflected words and separates homographs.
- Building a word list from texts actually aimed at learners, instead of native corpora, matches the target audience's real exposure.

## For Mova

How these ideas could serve Mova, our small open language model — its files, stages and tests:

- **I1** (world): Compiled lexical knowledge could store graded or distributional attributes, such as register or level spread, instead of one hard class, so that downstream reasoning can explain borderline cases.
- **I2** (tokens): The en crate's evaluation could report lemma, tag and segmentation errors separately, so regressions in lemmatization (e.g. *her* lemmatized as *she*) are not hidden inside one accuracy number.
- **I3** (learn): When witness parsers or LLM teacher tiers disagree, a small adjudicated gold slice could serve as the reference for scoring silver data, instead of trusting raw majority votes.
- **I4** (answer): Vocabulary statistics used by school-course readers could be keyed on lemma+POS, so judgments about difficulty or familiarity are not skewed by inflection.
- **I5** (back): Generation for learners or children could prefer words that are frequent at the reader's level in such graded material, which keeps output understandable and gives an explainable lexical choice.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

## Institutions

- [UCLouvain](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/uclouvain/) — University, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium · 11 works · 3,665 citations

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🧭 Topics (1): [English](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/english/) · 1,373 works

## Cite

Cite as: Luise Dürlich and Thomas François. 2018. EFLLex: A Graded Lexical Resource for Learners of English as a Foreign Language. Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2018).

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{durlich2018efllex,
  title = {{EFLLex: A Graded Lexical Resource for Learners of English as a Foreign Language}},
  author = {Luise Dürlich and Thomas François},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2018)},
  year = {2018},
  doi = {10.63317/43e9y9se8gyj},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.63317/43e9y9se8gyj}
}
```

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*Updated 24 October 2026*