---
title: "Stylometric Analysis of Early Modern Period English Plays — paper by Eisen et al. (2016)"
description: "The authors use word adjacency networks (WANs) built from function words to study this drama. 38 references."
authors: ["Mark Eisen", "Santiago Segarra", "Gabriel Egan", "Alejandro Ribeiro"]
year: 2016
venue: "arXiv:1610.05670"
source: "https://arxiv.org/abs/1610.05670"
doi: "10.48550/arxiv.1610.05670"
arxiv: "1610.05670"
licence: "arXiv — non-exclusive license to distribute"
licence_url: "http://arxiv.org/licenses/nonexclusive-distrib/1.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/eisen-2016-stylometric-analysis-early-modern-period/"
---
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# Stylometric Analysis of Early Modern Period English Plays

**Authors:** Mark Eisen, Santiago Segarra, Gabriel Egan and Alejandro Ribeiro · **Year:** 2016 · **Venue:** [arXiv:1610.05670](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/digital-scholarship-in-the-humanities/) ([Digital Scholarship in the Humanities 2016](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/digital-scholarship-in-the-humanities/2016/)) · **Publisher:** [Oxford University Press](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/oxford-university-press/) · **Licence:** [arXiv — non-exclusive license to distribute](http://arxiv.org/licenses/nonexclusive-distrib/1.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://arxiv.org/abs/1610.05670) · [PDF](https://arxiv.org/pdf/1610.05670) · [DOI 10.48550/arxiv.1610.05670](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.1610.05670) · [arXiv 1610.05670](https://arxiv.org/abs/1610.05670) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W2539360289)

**Citations:** 21 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14)

## Summary
Many English plays from the late 16th and early 17th centuries have uncertain authorship, because title pages were often wrong and co-writing went unrecorded. The authors use word adjacency networks (WANs) built from function words to study this drama. For each play, they count how often one function word is followed by another within a 10-word window inside the same speech, and nearer pairs count more (decay 0.75). Normalising each row of counts turns the network into a Markov chain. The chains of an author's secure plays are pooled into a profile, and a disputed text is assigned to the profile with the lowest relative entropy. On the undisputed plays of six playwrights, the method attributes 92.6% correctly and beats the frequency-only methods used in earlier Shakespeare studies. It also handles collaborative plays. Act-by-act and scene-by-scene runs on disputed works, such as Arden of Faversham, Edward III and Titus Andronicus, confirm accepted divisions and point to some new ones. The main lesson is that the order and spacing of grammatical words carry an authorial signal that plain counts miss.

## Key points
- Settings: α = 0.75 and D = 10, taken from earlier work. The text units are individual speeches rather than sentences, because much punctuation was added by publishers and characters do not always speak in full sentences.
- Raw relative entropy becomes infinite when a word pair is missing from a profile, so the sum is restricted to transitions that are non-zero in every candidate profile. This also removes a bias toward small profiles.
- Attribution accuracy across all authors is 92.6%, higher than frequency-based baselines. Later analyses use up to eight profiles: Shakespeare, Marlowe, Chapman, Jonson, Fletcher, Middleton, Peele and Greene. Kyd could not be profiled, since his only secure play is The Spanish Tragedy.
- Titus Andronicus:
  - Act 1 goes to Peele and the rest to Shakespeare, which supports Weber's case that Shakespeare wrote Scene 4.1.
  - For the "Fly" scene (3.2), Marlowe scores 0.27 and Shakespeare 0.47. Shakespeare is still preferred, because the scene appeared only after Marlowe's death.
  - Middleton (3.72) is not supported as the author of this scene.
- Edward III: Act 1 goes to Marlowe. Scenes 3.2, 3.3, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.5 and 4.9 sit far from both the Shakespeare and Marlowe profiles, which hints at a third, unprofiled writer.

## Interesting ideas
- Treating directed, distance-discounted co-occurrence of grammatical words as a Markov chain gives a compact fingerprint of style that ignores topic words, so it carries across subjects.
- Comparing distributions only on the support shared by all candidates stops large, dense profiles from winning simply because they are bigger.
- The text unit was matched to the genre (speeches instead of sentences) because the original punctuation could not be trusted.
- A text that is far from every candidate profile is read as evidence of an outside author, not forced onto the nearest one.
- The top statistical candidate was overruled by a hard chronological fact, because the scene appeared after Marlowe's death.

## For Mova

How these ideas could serve Mova, our small open language model — its files, stages and tests:

- **I1** (tokens): Function-word transition profiles per genre could flag input whose closed-class patterns differ from the tagger's training data, warning that morphology and tags may be less reliable.
- **I2** (learn): When scoring witness parsers or silver corpora of different sizes against each other, limit the comparison to shared relation types so that sheer coverage does not bias the agreement scores.
- **I3** (tree): For dialogue, plays and fables, speaker turns could serve as the parsing and evaluation unit when sentence boundaries are editorial or unreliable.
- **I4** (learn): The same open-set rule can act as a negative control, where inputs distant from all known profiles are rejected or marked unknown instead of being labelled with confidence.
- **I5** (world): Compiled facts about dates and the order of events could veto statistically preferred readings that are impossible in the world of the text.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

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- [University of Pennsylvania](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/university-of-pennsylvania/) — University, Philadelphia, United States · 170 works · 60,739 citations
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## Cite

Cite as: Mark Eisen, Santiago Segarra, Gabriel Egan and Alejandro Ribeiro. 2016. Stylometric Analysis of Early Modern Period English Plays. arXiv:1610.05670.

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@misc{eisen2016stylometric,
  title = {{Stylometric Analysis of Early Modern Period English Plays}},
  author = {Mark Eisen, Santiago Segarra, Gabriel Egan and Alejandro Ribeiro},
  year = {2016},
  doi = {10.48550/arxiv.1610.05670},
  eprint = {1610.05670},
  archivePrefix = {arXiv},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.1610.05670}
}
```

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*Updated 24 October 2026*