---
title: "The structure-mapping engine: Algorithm and examples (1989)"
description: "The paper presents the Structure-Mapping Engine (SME), a program that computationally models the… 74 references, cited by 33 papers here."
authors: ["Brian Falkenhainer", "Kenneth D. Forbus", "Dedre Gentner"]
year: 1989
venue: "Artificial Intelligence"
source: "https://www.qrg.northwestern.edu/papers/Files/smeff2(searchable).pdf"
licence: "author's copy (Qualitative Reasoning Group, Northwestern) — read only"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/falkenhainer-1989-structure-mapping-engine-algorithm-examples/"
---
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# The structure-mapping engine: Algorithm and examples

**Authors:** Brian Falkenhainer, [Kenneth D. Forbus](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/kenneth-d-forbus/) and [Dedre Gentner](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/dedre-gentner/) · **Year:** 1989 · **Venue:** [Artificial Intelligence](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/artificial-intelligence/) ([Artificial Intelligence 1989](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/artificial-intelligence/1989/)) · **Publisher:** [Elsevier BV](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/elsevier-bv/) · **Licence:** author's copy (Qualitative Reasoning Group, Northwestern) — read only

**Links:** [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W2145454741)

**Citations:** 1,454 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · [33](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/falkenhainer-1989-structure-mapping-engine-algorithm-examples/cited-by/) in our library, of the 149,439 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
The paper presents the Structure-Mapping Engine (SME), a program that computationally models the mapping stage of analogy under Gentner's Structure-mapping theory. In this theory, analogy is driven by shared relational structure, not surface features of objects. A connected system of relations, especially one tied together by higher-order relations such as CAUSE, is preferred over isolated facts (the systematicity principle). SME works as a configurable toolkit. It builds in the requirement that correspondences be one-to-one and structurally consistent. Every other matching constraint comes from user-supplied rules, which propose local correspondences and assign them evidence weights. SME then combines these local pieces into all consistent global interpretations, without backtracking, and scores each one structurally. The authors analyse the algorithm's complexity, demonstrate it on examples from cognitive simulation and machine learning, and compare it with other analogy programs. This matters because it gives psychologists a fast, explicit and adjustable simulator. It also gives AI learning systems an efficient analogy component.

## Key points
- Most steps of the algorithm are polynomial, typically bounded by O(N²). The authors suggest that connectionist-style relaxation could avoid listing every global mapping ("gmap") and bring the whole procedure close to O(N²).
- The program had been run on more than 40 examples, including the classic water-flow vs. heat-flow analogy.
- Theory and evaluation are kept separate. Match rules are interchangeable, so researchers can test different evaluation criteria on the same representations, or the same criteria on novice versus expert representations.
- SME serves as a component of Falkenhainer's PHINEAS, which belongs to the University of Illinois's Automated Physicist Project.
- The structural evaluation score (SES) is not normalized for domain size, so it cannot compare unrelated analogies. Janice Skorstad is building a programmable evaluator module to address this.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

## Institutions

- [University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/university-of-illinois-urbana-champaign/) — University, Urbana, United States · 228 works · 74,590 citations
- [University of Illinois System](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/university-of-illinois-system/) — University, Urbana, United States · 3 works · 1,577 citations

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## Cite

Cite as: Brian Falkenhainer, Kenneth D. Forbus and Dedre Gentner. 1989. The structure-mapping engine: Algorithm and examples. Artificial Intelligence.

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{falkenhainer1989structure,
  title = {{The structure-mapping engine: Algorithm and examples}},
  author = {Brian Falkenhainer, Kenneth D. Forbus and Dedre Gentner},
  booktitle = {Artificial Intelligence},
  year = {1989},
  doi = {10.1016/0004-3702(89)90077-5},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.1016/0004-3702(89)90077-5}
}
```

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- [↑ back to papers of 1989](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/1989/)

## References

74 references, 4 of them with a card of ours. ↗ leads to the work, «find» searches for one we have no id for yet.

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*Updated 3 November 2026*