---
title: "Morphology Without Borders: Clause-Level Morphology (2022)"
description: "They release MightyMorph, a clause-level dataset for English, German, Turkish and Hebrew, and… 60 references, cited by 10 papers here."
authors: ["Omer Goldman", "Reut Tsarfaty"]
year: 2022
venue: "Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/2022.tacl-1.83/"
doi: "10.1162/tacl_a_00528"
licence: "CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/goldman-2022-morphology-without-borders-clause-level/"
---
[Elamur Research](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/) · [this page in HTML](https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/goldman-2022-morphology-without-borders-clause-level/)

[home](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/) / [papers](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/) / [2022](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/2022/page/6/) / Morphology Without Borders: Clause-Level Morphology

# Morphology Without Borders: Clause-Level Morphology

**Authors:** [Omer Goldman](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/omer-goldman/) and [Reut Tsarfaty](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/reut-tsarfaty/) · **Year:** 2022 · **Venue:** [Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/tacl/) ([Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics (TACL) 2022](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/tacl/2022/)) · **Publisher:** [The MIT Press](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/the-mit-press/) · **Licence:** [CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/2022.tacl-1.83/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/2022.tacl-1.83.pdf) · [DOI 10.1162/tacl\_a\_00528](https://doi.org/10.1162/tacl_a_00528) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W4313459352)

**Citations:** 1 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · [10](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/goldman-2022-morphology-without-borders-clause-level/cited-by/) in our library, of the 149,439 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
Supervised computational morphology relies mostly on UniMorph, whose inflection tables are organized around the idea of a "word." The authors show that this idea is applied inconsistently across languages. Auxiliaries such as "will" are part of some paradigms and missing from others, and each language inflects for its own subset of features. As a result, a task's difficulty reflects writing conventions, such as how often a language uses white-space, more than its actual grammar.

Their fix is to treat morphology as a property of the clause. Every lexeme is inflected for one fixed, inclusive feature set that matches a saturated clause, however many words the result needs. They release MightyMorph, a clause-level dataset for English, German, Turkish and Hebrew, and derive data for inflection, reinflection and analysis from it. They test established word-level (re)inflection systems and the pretrained mT5. The clause-level tasks prove considerably harder than their word-level versions, but their difficulty is much more even across languages. This restores cross-lingual comparability and lets contextualized LMs be evaluated on morphology directly.

## Key points
- UniMorph covers over 170 languages and underlies a decade of SIGMORPHON shared tasks. Yet it gives English verbs only 5 forms while Turkish verbs get several hundred, even though the two languages' tense and aspect systems are comparably complex.
- MightyMorph is described as the first labeled clause-level morphology dataset. It covers four typologically diverse languages (English, German, Turkish, Hebrew) and supports three tasks: inflection, reinflection and analysis.
- Under this scheme, a single Swahili word like "siwapendi" and the English clause "I don't love them" fill the same cell. That cell is lexeme *love/penda* with PRS;NEG;NOM(1,SG);ACC(3,PL).
- Baselines include the word-level models of Silfverberg & Hulden (2018), Makarov & Clematide (2018) and Peters & Martins (2020), plus the multilingual pretrained mT5. All struggle more at the clause level.
- Open issues the authors list include the inflection–derivation boundary, overabundance (e.g., optional pro-drop in Hebrew; one canonical form is kept per cell) and multi-lexeme clauses. Future directions include a unified morpho-syntactic framework that could also handle polysynthetic languages like Yupik.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

## Institutions

- [Bar-Ilan University](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/bar-ilan-university/) — University, Ramat Gan, Israel · 141 works · 23,225 citations

📚 Shelves (4): [🖥️ Computer Science](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/computer-science/) · 16,667 works · [🤖 Artificial Intelligence](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/computer-science/artificial-intelligence/) · 16,194 works · [🎭 Arts and Humanities](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/arts-and-humanities/) · 16,039 works · [🗣️ Language and Linguistics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/arts-and-humanities/language-and-linguistics/) · 15,891 works

🧭 Topics (1): [🧩 Morphology](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/morphology/) · 405 works

## Cite

Cite as: Omer Goldman and Reut Tsarfaty. 2022. Morphology Without Borders: Clause-Level Morphology. Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics.

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@article{goldman2022morphology,
  title = {{Morphology Without Borders: Clause-Level Morphology}},
  author = {Omer Goldman and Reut Tsarfaty},
  journal = {Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics},
  year = {2022},
  doi = {10.1162/tacl\_a\_00528},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.1162/tacl_a_00528}
}
```

- [← previous DTW at Qur'an QA 2022: Utilising Transfer Learning with Transformers for Question Answering in a Low-resource Domain](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/premasiri-2022-dtw-qur-qa-2022-utilising/)
- [next → PEPDS: A Polite and Empathetic Persuasive Dialogue System for Charity Donation](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/mishra-2022-pepds-polite-empathetic-persuasive-dialogue/)
- [↑ back to papers of 2022](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/2022/page/6/)

## References

60 references, 15 of them with a card of ours. ↗ leads to the work, «find» searches for one we have no id for yet.

1. Muhammad Abdul-Mageed, Mona Diab, and Mohammed Korayem. 2011. [Subjectivity and sentiment analysis of Modern Standard Arabic](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/mageed-2011-subjectivity-sentiment-analysis-modern-standard/). In Proceedings of the 49th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, pages 587–591, Portland, Oregon, USA. Association for…
2. Steven P. Abney. 1991. Parsing by chunks. In Principle-based parsing, pages 257–278, Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-3474-3_10 [↗](https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-3474-3_10)
3. Ryskina, Sabrina J. Mielke, Elena Budianskaya, Charbel El-Khaissi, Tiago Pimentel, Michael Gasser, William Lane, Mohit Raj, Matt Coler, Jaime Rafael Montoya Samame, Delio Siticonatzi Camaiteri, Esaú Zumaeta Rojas, Didier López Francis, Arturo Oncevay, Juan López Bautista, Gema Celeste Silva Ville… — [UniMorph 4.0: Universal Morphology](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/batsuren-2022-unimorph-4/)
4. Farrell Ackerman, James P. Blevins, and Robert Malouf. 2009. Parts and wholes: Patterns of relatedness in complex morphological systems and why they matter. Analogy in Grammar: Form and Acquisition, 54:82. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199547548 .003.0003 — [doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199547548](https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199547548) [↗](https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199547548)
5. Farrell Ackerman and Gregory Stump. 2004. Paradigms and periphrastic expression: A study in realization-based lexicalism. Projecting Morphology, pages 111–157. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Farrell+Ackerman+and+Gregory+Stump%2E+2004%2E+Paradigms+and+periphrastic+expression%3A+A+study+in+realization%2Dbased+lexicalism%2E+Projecting+Morphology%2C+pages+111%E2%80%93157%2E)
6. Adam Amram, Anat Ben David, and Reut Tsarfaty. 2018. [Representations and architectures in neural sentiment analysis for morphologically rich languages: A case study from Modern Hebrew](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/amram-2018-representations-architectures-neural-sentiment-analysis/). In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Computational Linguistics, pages 2242–2252, Santa Fe, New Me…
7. Stephen R. Anderson. 1992. A-morphous Morphology, 62. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511586262 [↗](https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511586262)
8. Guntis Bārzdiņš, Normunds Grūzı̄tis, Gunta Nešpore, and Baiba Saulı̄te. 2007. Dependency-based hybrid model of syntactic analysis for the languages with a rather free word order. In Proceedings of the 16th Nordic Conference of Computational Linguistics (NODALIDA 2007), pages 13–20, Tartu, Eston… [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Guntis+Ba%CC%84rzdin%CC%A7s%CC%8C%2C+Normunds+Gru%CC%84z%C4%B1%CC%84tis%2C+Gunta+Nes%CC%8Cpore%2C+and+Baiba+Saul%C4%B1%CC%84te%2E+2007%2E+Dependency%2Dbased+hybrid+model+of+syntactic+analysis+for+the+languages+with+a+rather+free+word+order%2E+In+Proceedings+o)
9. Ali Basirat and Joakim Nivre. 2021. Syntactic nuclei in dependency parsing – a multilingual exploration. In Proceedings of the 16th Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Main Volume, pages 1376–1387, Online. Association for Computational Linguistics. ht… [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Ali+Basirat+and+Joakim+Nivre%2E+2021%2E+Syntactic+nuclei+in+dependency+parsing+%E2%80%93+a+multilingual+exploration%2E+In+Proceedings+of+the+16th+Conference+of+the+European+Chapter+of+the+Association+for+Computatio)
10. Khuyagbaatar Batsuren, Omer Goldman, Salam Khalifa, Nizar Habash, Witold Kieraś, Gábor Bella, Brian Leonard, Garrett Nicolai, Kyle Gorman, Yustinus Ghanggo Ate, Maria Kaj Bostrom and Greg Durrett. 2020. [Byte pair encoding is suboptimal for language model pretraining](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/bostrom-2020-byte-pair-encoding-is-suboptimal/). In Findings of the Association…
11. Joan Bresnan, Ash Asudeh, Ida Toivonen, and Stephen Wechsler. 2015. Lexical-Functional Syntax. John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119105664 — [doi:10.1002/9781119105664](https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119105664) [↗](https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119105664)
12. Joan Bresnan and Sam A. Mchombo. 1995. The lexical integrity principle: Evidence from Bantu. Natural Language & Linguistic Theory, 13(2):181–254. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00992782 [↗](https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00992782)
13. Robert M. W. Dixon and Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald. 2002. Word: a typological framework. Word: A Cross-Linguistic Typology, pages 1–41. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511486241.002 [↗](https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511486241.002)
14. Sabine Buchholz, Jorn Veenstra, and Walter Daelemans. 1999. Cascaded grammatical relation assignment. In 1999 Joint SIGDAT Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and Very Large Corpora. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Sabine+Buchholz%2C+Jorn+Veenstra%2C+and+Walter+Daelemans%2E+1999%2E+Cascaded+grammatical+relation+assignment%2E+In+1999+Joint+SIGDAT+Conference+on+Empirical+Methods+in+Natural+Language+Processing+and+Very+Large)
15. San Duanmu. 1998. Wordhood in Chinese. In New approaches to Chinese word formation, pages 135–196, De Gruyter Mouton. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=San+Duanmu%2E+1998%2E+Wordhood+in+Chinese%2E+In+New+approaches+to+Chinese+word+formation%2C+pages+135%E2%80%93196%2C+De+Gruyter+Mouton%2E)
16. Joan L. Bybee. 1985. Morphology: A study of the relation between meaning and form, volume 9. John Benjamins Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1075/tsl.9 — [doi:10.1075/tsl.9](https://doi.org/10.1075/tsl.9) [↗](https://doi.org/10.1075/tsl.9)
17. Victor Chahuneau, Eva Schlinger, Noah A. Smith, and Chris Dyer. 2013. Translating into morphologically rich languages with synthetic phrases. In Proceedings of the 2013 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, pages 1677–1687, Seattle, Washington, USA. Association for Computat… [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Victor+Chahuneau%2C+Eva+Schlinger%2C+Noah+A%2E+Smith%2C+and+Chris+Dyer%2E+2013%2E+Translating+into+morphologically+rich+languages+with+synthetic+phrases%2E+In+Proceedings+of+the+2013+Conference+on+Empirical+Methods)
18. Ryan Cotterell, Christo Kirov, John Sylak-Glassman, Géraldine Walther, Ekaterina Vylomova, Patrick Xia, Manaal Faruqui, Sandra Kübler, David Yarowsky, Jason Eisner, and Mans Hulden. 2017. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Ryan+Cotterell%2C+Christo+Kirov%2C+John+Sylak%2DGlassman%2C+Ge%CC%81raldine+Walther%2C+Ekaterina+Vylomova%2C+Patrick+Xia%2C+Manaal+Faruqui%2C+Sandra+Ku%CC%88bler%2C+David+Yarowsky%2C+Jason+Eisner%2C+and+Mans+Hulden%2E+2017%2E)
19. [CoNLL-SIGMORPHON 2017 shared task: Universal morphological reinflection in 52 languages](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/cotterell-2017-sigmorphon-reinflection-52/). In Proceedings of the CoNLL SIGMORPHON 2017 Shared Task: Universal Morphological Reinflection, pages 1–30, Vancouver. Association for Computational Linguistics. https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/K17-2001 [↗](https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/K17-2001)
20. Ryan Cotterell, Christo Kirov, John Sylak-Glassman, David Yarowsky, Jason Eisner, and Mans Hulden. 2016. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Ryan+Cotterell%2C+Christo+Kirov%2C+John+Sylak%2DGlassman%2C+David+Yarowsky%2C+Jason+Eisner%2C+and+Mans+Hulden%2E+2016%2E)
21. The SIGMORPHON 2016 shared task—Morphological reinflection. In Proceedings of the 14th SIGMOR-PHON Workshop on Computational Research in Phonetics, Phonology, and Morphology, pages 10–22, Berlin, Germany. Association for Computational Linguistics. https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/W16-2002 [↗](https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/W16-2002)
22. Marie-Catherine de Marneffe, Christopher D. Manning, Joakim Nivre, and Daniel Zeman. 2021. [Universal dependencies](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/marneffe-2021-universal-dependencies-2/). Computational Linguistics, 47(2):255–308. https://doi.org/10.1162/coli_a_00402 [↗](https://doi.org/10.1162/coli_a_00402)
23. Gerald Gazdar, Ewan Klein, Geoffrey Pullum, and Ivan Sag. 1989. Generalized phrase structure grammar. Philosophical Review, 98(4):556–566. https://doi.org/10.2307/2185122 [↗](https://doi.org/10.2307/2185122)
24. Omer Goldman, David Guriel, and Reut Tsarfaty. 2022. (un)solving morphological inflection: Lemma overlap artificially inflates models’ performance. In Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Dublin, Ireland. Association for Computational Linguistics.… [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Omer+Goldman%2C+David+Guriel%2C+and+Reut+Tsarfaty%2E+2022%2E+%28un%29solving+morphological+inflection%3A+Lemma+overlap+artificially+inflates+models%E2%80%99+performance%2E+In+Proceedings+of+the+60th+Annual+Meeting+of+the+Ass)
25. Edouard Grave, Piotr Bojanowski, Prakhar Gupta, Armand Joulin, and Tomas Mikolov. 2018. [Learning word vectors for 157 languages](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/grave-2018-learning-word-vectors-157-languages/). In Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2018), Miyazaki, Japan. European Language Resources Association (ELRA).
26. David Guriel, Omer Goldman, and Reut Tsarfaty. 2022. Morphological reinflection with multiple arguments: An extended annotation schema and a georgian case study. In Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Dublin, Ireland. Association for Computational… [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=David+Guriel%2C+Omer+Goldman%2C+and+Reut+Tsarfaty%2E+2022%2E+Morphological+reinflection+with+multiple+arguments%3A+An+extended+annotation+schema+and+a+georgian+case+study%2E+In+Proceedings+of+the+60th+Annual+Meet)
27. T. Alan Hall. 1999. The phonological word: a review. Studies on the Phonological Word, 174(1):22. https://doi.org/10.1075/cilt.174.02hal Morris Halle and Alec Marantz. 1993. Distributed morphology and the pieces of inflection. The View from Building 20, pages 111–176. [↗](https://doi.org/10.1075/cilt.174.02hal)
28. Martin Haspelmath. 2011. The indeterminacy of word segmentation and the nature of morphology and syntax. Folia Linguistica, 45(1):31–80. https://doi.org/10.1515/flin.2011 .002 — [doi:10.1515/flin.2011](https://doi.org/10.1515/flin.2011) [↗](https://doi.org/10.1515/flin.2011)
29. Valentin Hofmann, Janet Pierrehumbert, and Hinrich Schütze. 2021. [Superbizarre is not superb: Derivational morphology improves BERT’s interpretation of complex words](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/hofmann-2021-superbizarre-derivational/). In Proceedings of the 59th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 11th International Joint Conferen…
30. Paul J. Hopper and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. 2003. Grammaticalization. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139165525 [↗](https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139165525)
31. Brian D. Joseph. 2003. Morphologization from syntax. Handbook of Historical Linguistics, pages 472–492. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470756393.ch13 [↗](https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470756393.ch13)
32. Taku Kudo. 2018. [Subword regularization: Improving neural network translation models with multiple subword candidates](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/kudo-2018-subword-regularization-improving-neural-network/). In Proceedings of the 56th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers), pages 66–75, Melbourne, Australia. Association for Computational…
33. Mike Lewis, Yinhan Liu, Naman Goyal, Marjan Ghazvininejad, Abdelrahman Mohamed, Omer Levy, Veselin Stoyanov, and Luke Zettlemoyer. 2020. [BART: Denoising sequence-to-sequence pre-training for natural language generation, translation, and comprehension](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/lewis-2020-bart-denoising-sequence-sequence-pre/). In Proceedings of the 58th Annual Meeting of the…
34. Peter Makarov and Simon Clematide. 2018. Neural transition-based string transduction for limited-resource setting in morphology. In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Computational Linguistics, pages 83–93, Santa Fe, New Mexico, USA. Association for Computational Linguistics. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Peter+Makarov+and+Simon+Clematide%2E+2018%2E+Neural+transition%2Dbased+string+transduction+for+limited%2Dresource+setting+in+morphology%2E+In+Proceedings+of+the+27th+International+Conference+on+Computational+Li)
35. Einat Minkov, Kristina Toutanova, and Hisami Suzuki. 2007. Generating complex morphology for machine translation. In Proceedings of the 45th Annual Meeting of the Association of Computational Linguistics, pages 128–135, Prague, Czech Republic. Association for Computational Linguistics. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Einat+Minkov%2C+Kristina+Toutanova%2C+and+Hisami+Suzuki%2E+2007%2E+Generating+complex+morphology+for+machine+translation%2E+In+Proceedings+of+the+45th+Annual+Meeting+of+the+Association+of+Computational+Linguist)
36. Fidèle Mpiranya. 2014. Swahili Grammar and Workbook. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315750699 — [doi:10.4324/9781315750699](https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315750699) [↗](https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315750699)
37. Tetsuji Nakagawa. 2004. Chinese and Japanese word segmentation using word-level and character-level information. In COLING 2004: Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Computational Linguistics, pages 466–472, Geneva, Switzerland. COLING. https://doi.org/10.3115/1220355 .1220422 [↗](https://doi.org/10.3115/1220355)
38. Muriel Norde et al. 2009. Degrammaticalization. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199207923 .001.0001 — [doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199207923](https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199207923) [↗](https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199207923)
39. Jerome L. Packard. 2000. The Morphology of Chinese: A Linguistic and Cognitive Approach. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511486821 — [doi:10.1017/cbo9780511486821](https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511486821) [↗](https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511486821)
40. Hyunji Park, Lane Schwartz, and Francis Tyers. 2021. Expanding Universal Dependencies for polysynthetic languages: A case of St. Lawrence Island Yupik. In Proceedings of the First Workshop on Natural Language Processing for Indigenous Languages of the Americas, pages 131–142, Online. Association for… [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Hyunji+Park%2C+Lane+Schwartz%2C+and+Francis+Tyers%2E+2021%2E+Expanding+Universal+Dependencies+for+polysynthetic+languages%3A+A+case+of+St%2E+Lawrence+Island+Yupik%2E+In+Proceedings+of+the+First+Workshop+on+Natural+)
41. Ben Peters and André F. T. Martins. 2020. One-size-fits-all multilingual models. In Proceedings of the 17th SIGMORPHON Workshop on Computational Research in Phonetics, Phonology, and Morphology, pages 63–69, Online. Association for Computational Linguistics. https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/2020 .sigmor… [↗](https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/2020)
42. Tiago Pimentel, Maria Ryskina, Sabrina J. Mielke, Shijie Wu, Eleanor Chodroff, Brian Leonard, Garrett Nicolai, Yustinus Ghanggo Ate, Salam Khalifa, Nizar Habash, Charbel El-Khaissi, Omer Goldman, Michael Gasser, William Lane, Matt Coler, Arturo Oncevay, Jaime Rafael Montoya Samame, Gema Celeste Silv… [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Tiago+Pimentel%2C+Maria+Ryskina%2C+Sabrina+J%2E+Mielke%2C+Shijie+Wu%2C+Eleanor+Chodroff%2C+Brian+Leonard%2C+Garrett+Nicolai%2C+Yustinus+Ghanggo+Ate%2C+Salam+Khalifa%2C+Nizar+Habash%2C+Charbel+El%2DKhaissi%2C+Omer+Goldman%2C+Mich)
43. Sigmorphon 2021 shared task on morphological reinflection: Generalization across languages. In Proceedings of the 18th SIGMORPHON Workshop on Computational Research in Phonetics, Phonology, and Morphology, pages 229–259, Online. Association for Computational Linguistics. https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/… [↗](https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/…)
44. Carl Pollard and Ivan A. Sag. 1994. Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar. University of Chicago Press. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Carl+Pollard+and+Ivan+A%2E+Sag%2E+1994%2E+Head%2DDriven+Phrase+Structure+Grammar%2E+University+of+Chicago+Press%2E)
45. Colin Raffel, Noam Shazeer, Adam Roberts, Katherine Lee, Sharan Narang, Michael Matena, Yanqi Zhou, Wei Li, and Peter J. Liu. 2020. [Exploring the limits of transfer learning with a unified text-to-text transformer](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/raffel-2019-exploring-limits-transfer-learning-unified/). Journal of Machine Learning Research, 21(140):1–67.
46. Richard H. Richens and A. Donald Booth. 1952. Some methods of mechanized translation. In Proceedings of the Conference on Mechanical Translation. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Richard+H%2E+Richens+and+A%2E+Donald+Booth%2E+1952%2E+Some+methods+of+mechanized+translation%2E+In+Proceedings+of+the+Conference+on+Mechanical+Translation%2E)
47. Sergio Scalise. 1988. Inflection and derivation. Linguistics, 26(4):561–582. https://doi.org/10.1515/ling.1988.26.4.561 — [doi:10.1515/ling.1988.26.4.561](https://doi.org/10.1515/ling.1988.26.4.561) [↗](https://doi.org/10.1515/ling.1988.26.4.561)
48. Mike Schuster and Kaisuke Nakajima. 2012. Japanese and Korean voice search. In 2012 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP), pages 5149–5152. IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICASSP.2012.6289079 — [doi:10.1109/icassp.2012.6289079](https://doi.org/10.1109/icassp.2012.6289079) [↗](https://doi.org/10.1109/ICASSP.2012.6289079)
49. Rico Sennrich, Barry Haddow, and Alexandra Birch. 2016. [Neural machine translation of rare words with subword units](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/sennrich-2016-neural-machine-translation-rare-words/). In Proceedings of the 54th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers), pages 1715–1725, Berlin, Germany. Association for Computational Lin…
50. Stuart M. Shieber. 2003. An Introduction to Unification-Based Approaches to Grammar. Microtome Publishing. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Stuart+M%2E+Shieber%2E+2003%2E+An+Introduction+to+Unification%2DBased+Approaches+to+Grammar%2E+Microtome+Publishing%2E)
51. Miikka Silfverberg and Mans Hulden. 2018. An encoder-decoder approach to the paradigm cell filling problem. In Proceedings of the 2018 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, pages 2883–2889, Brussels, Belgium. Association for Computational Linguistics. https://doi.org/10 .18… [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Miikka+Silfverberg+and+Mans+Hulden%2E+2018%2E+An+encoder%2Ddecoder+approach+to+the+paradigm+cell+filling+problem%2E+In+Proceedings+of+the+2018+Conference+on+Empirical+Methods+in+Natural+Language+Processing%2C+p)
52. John Sylak-Glassman. 2016. The composition and use of the universal morphological feature schema (unimorph schema). Technical report, Department of Computer Science, Johns Hopkins University. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=John+Sylak%2DGlassman%2E+2016%2E+The+composition+and+use+of+the+universal+morphological+feature+schema+%28unimorph+schema%29%2E+Technical+report%2C+Department+of+Computer+Science%2C+Johns+Hopkins+University%2E)
53. John Sylak-Glassman, Christo Kirov, David Yarowsky, and Roger Que. 2015. [A language-independent feature schema for inflectional morphology](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/glassman-2015-language-independent-feature-schema-inflectional/). In Proceedings of the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 7th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Proces…
54. Donald Humphry Webster. 1968. Let’s learn Eskimo. Summer Institute of Linguistics. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Donald+Humphry+Webster%2E+1968%2E+Let%E2%80%99s+learn+Eskimo%2E+Summer+Institute+of+Linguistics%2E)
55. Arnett Wilkes and Nikolias Nkosi. 2012. Complete Zulu Beginner to Intermediate Book and Audio Course: Learn to Read, Write, Speak and Understand a New Language with Teach Yourself . Hachette UK. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Arnett+Wilkes+and+Nikolias+Nkosi%2E+2012%2E+Complete+Zulu+Beginner+to+Intermediate+Book+and+Audio+Course%3A+Learn+to+Read%2C+Write%2C+Speak+and+Understand+a+New+Language+with+Teach+Yourself+%2E+Hachette+UK%2E)
56. Terry Winograd. 1971. Procedures as a representation for data in a computer program for understanding natural language. Technical report, Project MAC, MIT. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Terry+Winograd%2E+1971%2E+Procedures+as+a+representation+for+data+in+a+computer+program+for+understanding+natural+language%2E+Technical+report%2C+Project+MAC%2C+MIT%2E)
57. Linting Xue, Noah Constant, Adam Roberts, Mihir Kale, Rami Al-Rfou, Aditya Siddhant, Aditya Barua, and Colin Raffel. 2021. [mT5: A massively multilingual pre-trained text-to-text transformer](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/xue-2021-mt5-massively-multilingual-pre-trained/). In Proceedings of the 2021
58. Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, pages 483–498, Online. Association for Computational Linguistics. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Conference+of+the+North+American+Chapter+of+the+Association+for+Computational+Linguistics%3A+Human+Language+Technologies%2C+pages+483%E2%80%93498%2C+Online%2E+Association+for+Computational+Linguistics%2E)
59. Nianwen Xue. 2003. [Chinese word segmentation as character tagging](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/xue-2003-chinese-word-segmentation-as-character/). In International Journal of Computational Linguistics & Chinese Language Processing, Volume 8, Number 1, February 2003: Special Issue on Word Formation and Chinese Language Processing, pages 29–48.
60. Arnold M. Zwicky and Geoffrey K. Pullum. 1983. Cliticization vs. inflection: English n’t. Language, 59(3):502–513. https://doi.org/10.2307/413900 — [doi:10.2307/413900](https://doi.org/10.2307/413900) [↗](https://doi.org/10.2307/413900)

*Updated 30 October 2026*