---
title: "Scalable Modified Kneser-Ney Language Model — Heafield 2013"
description: "Modified Kneser-Ney smoothing yields low-perplexity n-gram language models, but standard toolkits either need very large amounts of memory (SRILM…"
authors: ["Kenneth Heafield", "Ivan Pouzyrevsky", "Jonathan H. Clark", "Philipp Koehn"]
year: 2013
venue: "Proceedings of the 51st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 2: Short Papers)"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/P13-2121/"
licence: "CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (ACL Anthology, before 2016)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/heafield-2013-scalable-modified-kneser-ney-language/"
---
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# Scalable Modified Kneser-Ney Language Model Estimation

**Authors:** [Kenneth Heafield](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/kenneth-heafield/), Ivan Pouzyrevsky, [Jonathan H. Clark](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/jonathan-h-clark/), [Philipp Koehn](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/philipp-koehn/) · **Year:** 2013 · **Venue:** Proceedings of the 51st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 2: Short Papers) · **Licence:** [CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (ACL Anthology, before 2016)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/P13-2121/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/P13-2121.pdf) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W2141440284)

**Citations:** 431 citations (openalex-snapshot · 2026-10-14) · [278](#cited-by) in our library, of the 140884 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
Modified Kneser-Ney smoothing yields low-perplexity n-gram language models, but standard toolkits either need very large amounts of memory (SRILM, IRSTLM) or large clusters (Google's MapReduce approach). The authors propose an estimation algorithm that runs on a single machine with a user-set RAM budget and uses disk for the rest. It is organized as streaming passes: counting, adjusting counts, normalization (with paired sum and divide threads per order), and interpolation merged with backoff joining. The passes are linked by three disk-based merge sorts that use pipelining and optimal arity. Exact integer arithmetic also avoids the numerical-precision problems seen in SRILM. On ClueWeb09, cleaned down to 126 billion English tokens, they trained an unpruned 5-gram model in under three days on one server. Adding it to strong WMT 2013 systems consistently raised BLEU. On small data the method is also much cheaper than SRILM and IRSTLM. The work shows that full Kneser-Ney smoothing can scale without simplifications such as Stupid Backoff. The code is released in KenLM.

## Key points
- **Scaling to 126 billion tokens:** The ClueWeb09 model (about 59.8 billion unique 5-grams) used 123 GB of RAM on a 140 GB machine. It took 2.8 days of wall time and 5.4 CPU days.
- **Translation gains:** After 10-bit quantization and compression, the model occupied 643 GB. Used as an extra feature in Edinburgh's Moses systems, it gave +0.8 BLEU over the constrained baseline (7 billion tokens) for Czech-, French-, and Spanish-English at WMT 2013.
- **Speed and memory on small data:** On 302 million tokens, it used 7.7% of SRILM's RAM, 14.0% of its wall time, and 25.4% of its CPU time. Against IRSTLM, it used 16.6% of the RAM, 9.0% of the wall time, and 16.4% of the CPU time.
- **Standard output:** Unlike MSRLM, it performs full normalization and interpolation at estimation time, so it produces standard ARPA output.
- **Availability:** The code is open source (LGPL) as part of KenLM.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

Fields: [Natural language processing](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/nlp/)

## Cited by

Cited by

278 papers of our library cite it (of the 140884 whose bibliographies we read); 30 of them have a page here, 248 not yet.

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## Cite

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{heafield2013scalable,
  title = {{Scalable Modified Kneser-Ney Language Model Estimation}},
  author = {Heafield, Kenneth and Pouzyrevsky, Ivan and Clark, Jonathan H. and Koehn, Philipp},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 51st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 2: Short Papers)},
  year = {2013},
  url = {https://aclanthology.org/P13-2121/}
}
```

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