---
title: "Collaborating on Referring Expressions — Heeman 1995"
description: "Heeman and Hirst study what happens when a hearer cannot identify the object a speaker is… 54 references, cited by 25 papers here."
authors: ["Peter A. Heeman", "Graeme Hirst"]
year: 1995
venue: "Computational Linguistics"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/J95-3003/"
licence: "CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (ACL Anthology, before 2016)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/heeman-1995-collaborating-referring-expressions/"
---
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# Collaborating on Referring Expressions

**Authors:** [Peter A. Heeman](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/peter-a-heeman/) and [Graeme Hirst](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/graeme-hirst/) · **Year:** 1995 · **Venue:** [Computational Linguistics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/cl/) ([Computational Linguistics 1995](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/cl/1995/)) · **Publisher:** [The MIT Press](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/the-mit-press/) · **Licence:** [CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (ACL Anthology, before 2016)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/J95-3003/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/J95-3003.pdf) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W1541473376)

**Citations:** 105 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · [25](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/heeman-1995-collaborating-referring-expressions/cited-by/) in our library, of the 149,439 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
Heeman and Hirst study what happens when a hearer cannot identify the object a speaker is describing and the two must work together to fix the reference. They start from Clark and Wilkes-Gibbs (1986), a descriptive account drawn from experiments in which people described hard-to-name tangram figures, and turn it into a computational, plan-based model.

In their model, a referring expression is a plan derivation. Producing a description is plan construction, and finding its referent is plan inference. Clarification moves, such as judging or refashioning a description, become meta-actions that examine and edit that derivation. A second tier models the collaboration itself. Each agent holds a mental state containing the referring goal, intentions, and a shared current plan. Rules tied to this state allow an agent to accept a partner's clarification and to adopt its own goals to clarify.

There is no quantitative evaluation. The contribution is showing that the descriptive theory can be made computational, using a single knowledge source for both generation and understanding.

## Key points
- The basis is Clark and Wilkes-Gibbs's (1986) collaborative model. In it, participants present, judge (accept, reject, postpone) and refashion (repair, expand, replace) a referring expression until it is good enough for current purposes.
- The model has two tiers:
  - a planning component that handles both generation and understanding;
  - a collaboration component that links the agent's mental state to the planning processes through acceptance and goal-adoption rules.
- The current plan, and a proposed clarification, can be accepted even if they do not yet lead to successful identification of the referent.
- The scope is deliberately limited:
  - referring expressions are studied in isolation;
  - mechanisms are assumed to be mutually known, and objects known to both agents;
  - input and output are surface speech act representations, not natural-language strings;
  - belief revision is not modelled.
- The authors propose a London-Lund corpus dialog (Svartvik and Quirk 1980, S.2.4a:1-8) as a benchmark for future work on references embedded in other activities.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

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- [University of Toronto](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/university-of-toronto/) — University, Toronto, Canada · 110 works · 179,062 citations
- [University of Rochester](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/university-of-rochester/) — University, Rochester, United States · 43 works · 7,874 citations

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## Cite

Cite as: Peter A. Heeman and Graeme Hirst. 1995. Collaborating on Referring Expressions. Computational Linguistics.

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@article{heeman1995collaborating,
  title = {{Collaborating on Referring Expressions}},
  author = {Peter A. Heeman and Graeme Hirst},
  journal = {Computational Linguistics},
  year = {1995},
  doi = {10.5555/216261.216267},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.5555/216261.216267}
}
```

- [← previous Computational Interpretations of the Gricean Maxims in the Generation of Referring Expressions](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/dale-1995-computational-interpretations-gricean-maxims-generation/)
- [next → Corpus Statistics Meet the Noun Compound: Some Empirical Results](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/lauer-1995-corpus-statistics-meet-noun-compound/)
- [↑ back to papers of 1995](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/1995/)

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*Updated 30 October 2026*