---
title: "Gender and number morphology in Ethio-Eritrean semitic"
description: "Published in volume 7 (2021) of the journal Quaderni di Linguistica e Studi Orientali, this article by Tesfay Tewolde Yohannes… 50 references."
authors: ["Tesfay Tewolde Johannes"]
year: 2021
venue: "Quaderni di Linguistica e Studi Orientali 7"
source: "https://oaj.fupress.net/index.php/bsfm-qulso/article/view/12006"
doi: "10.13128/qulso-2421-7220-12006"
licence: "CC BY (journal licence per DOAJ; Quaderni di Linguistica e Studi Orientali)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/johannes-2021-gender-number-morphology-ethio-eritrean/"
---
[Elamur Research](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/) · [this page in HTML](https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/johannes-2021-gender-number-morphology-ethio-eritrean/)

[home](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/) / [papers](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/) / [2021](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/2021/page/7/) / Gender and number morphology in Ethio-Eritrean semitic languages

# Gender and number morphology in Ethio-Eritrean semitic languages

**Authors:** Tesfay Tewolde Johannes · **Year:** 2021 · **Venue:** [Quaderni di Linguistica e Studi Orientali 7](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/quaderni-di-linguistica-e-studi-orientali/) ([Quaderni di Linguistica e Studi Orientali 2021](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/quaderni-di-linguistica-e-studi-orientali/2021/)) · **Publisher:** [Firenze University Press](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/firenze-university-press/) · **Licence:** [CC BY (journal licence per DOAJ; Quaderni di Linguistica e Studi Orientali)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://doi.org/10.13128/qulso-2421-7220-12006) · [PDF](https://oaj.fupress.net/index.php/bsfm-qulso/article/download/12006/10226) · [DOI 10.13128/qulso-2421-7220-12006](https://doi.org/10.13128/qulso-2421-7220-12006) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W4394991722)

**Citations:** 1 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14)

## Summary
Published in volume 7 (2021) of the journal Quaderni di Linguistica e Studi Orientali, this article by Tesfay Tewolde Yohannes examines how gender and number marking relate to each other in the Ethio-Eritrean Semitic (EES) languages. It focuses on Tigrinya, Amharic and Tigre, with additional material from Gɨʕɨz, Harari and others. The work is a descriptive and comparative study built on glossed example forms and earlier Semitic scholarship, notably Hasselbach (2007) and Buccellati (1996). It does not use a corpus or computational methods. The author follows the old Semitic vowels -ā (feminine) and -ū (masculine), together with -t and the number element n, into EES and identifies their descendants -ačč, -očč, -o and -ot as plural markers. The main claim is that gender and number markers depend on each other, can act like noun classifiers, and that the gender use is probably older than the number use. The diachronic link between the two is left for future research. The study matters for anyone modelling Semitic agreement, because it shows a single suffix often carrying person, gender and number together.

## Key points
- In verb endings, one element can carry several features. Tigrinya *kɨna* breaks down into k (2nd person), ɨ (primary feminine), n (number) and a (secondary feminine). In other forms, -a and -u mark 3fpl/3mpl or fpl/mpl.
- Amharic has no gender distinction in the plural, so -u simply marks plural. Tigre uses -a, -w and -o (\< aw), and Gɨʕɨz uses -ā and -ū.
- EES nouns rarely show gender overtly. Gender becomes visible through agreement on targets such as verbs, determiners, pronouns, the numeral "one", possessives and adpositions. Amharic -it also has a diminutive function.
- The plural markers listed for EES are: -ā/a, -āt/at, -ačč, -ū/u, -očč, -o, -ot, -n/m, -an, -yan, -yat and ɂn.
- Plurals can stack. Amharic *liq* takes a possible plural (*liqawɨn*), then a double plural (+t), then a multi-plural (+očč). Number suffixes attach to the head of compounds, which is right-headed in Amharic and left-headed in Tigrinya.

## Interesting ideas
- A single suffix can pack person, gender and number together, so these features should be stored as one bundle with a breakdown of which piece contributes which feature.
- Gender is often invisible on the noun and shows up only on agreeing words. The paper treats the noun as the trigger and the other words as targets, so gender is inferred from the targets.
- Plural marking attaches to the head of a compound, and the head can sit on either side depending on the language.
- Plurals built in layers (possible, double, then multi-plural) are modelled as successive structural layers, not as one flat suffix.
- Following Arregi and Nevins, the paper treats syntax as fixing only sisterhood and dominance, with linear order of inflections settled after syntax.

## For Mova

How these ideas could serve Mova, our small open language model — its files, stages and tests:

- **I1** (tokens): English morphology in crate en could record such cumulative feature bundles with their origin (for example, -s carrying both 3sg and present), which keeps the analysis explainable.
- **I2** (frames): coreference could recover a referent's gender or number from agreeing pronouns and determiners, as evidence linked to the trigger noun, instead of guessing it from the noun alone.
- **I3** (tree): when converting UD treebank dialects or checking parses of noun compounds, the parser could use the position of number marking as a signal for which word is the head.
- **I4** (tokens): the lemmatizer could keep a layered derivation history for stacked affixes, so that every peeled suffix can be explained step by step.
- **I5** (back): generation from the meaning graph could first build an unordered tree and then apply a separate, explainable linearization step for word and affix order.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

## Institutions

- [Addis Ababa University](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/addis-ababa-university/) — University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia · 11 works · 34 citations
- [University of Florence](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/university-of-florence/) — University, Florence, Italy · 5 works · 1 citation

📚 Shelves (2): [🎭 Arts and Humanities](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/arts-and-humanities/) · 9,296 works · [🗣️ Language and Linguistics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/arts-and-humanities/language-and-linguistics/) · 9,206 works

🧭 Topics (2): [Semitic languages](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/semitic-languages/) · 1,484 works · [🧩 Morphology](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/morphology/) · 277 works

## Cite

Cite as: Tesfay Tewolde Johannes. 2021. Gender and number morphology in Ethio-Eritrean semitic languages. Quaderni di Linguistica e Studi Orientali 7.

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{johannes2021gender,
  title = {{Gender and number morphology in Ethio-Eritrean semitic languages}},
  author = {Tesfay Tewolde Johannes},
  booktitle = {Quaderni di Linguistica e Studi Orientali 7},
  year = {2021},
  doi = {10.13128/qulso-2421-7220-12006},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.13128/qulso-2421-7220-12006}
}
```

- [← previous Exploring the Sensory Spaces of English Perceptual Verbs in Natural Language Data](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/girju-2021-exploring-sensory-spaces-english-perceptual/)
- [next → On the treatment of super-heavy syllables in Arabic Dialects: an Optimality Theoretic approach to historical typology](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/bokhari-2021-treatment-super-heavy-syllables-arabic/)
- [↑ back to papers of 2021](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/2021/page/7/)

## References

50 references, 0 of them with a card of ours. ↗ leads to the work, «find» searches for one we have no id for yet.

1. Adger, David. 2003. Core Syntax: A Minimalist Approach. New York, NY: Oxford UP. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Adger%2C+David%2E+2003%2E+Core+Syntax%3A+A+Minimalist+Approach%2E+New+York%2C+NY%3A+Oxford+UP%2E)
2. Adger, David, and Daniel Harbour. 2007. “Syntax and Syncretism of the Person Case Constraint.” Syntax 10 (1): 2-37. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Adger%2C+David%2C+and+Daniel+Harbour%2E+2007%2E+%E2%80%9CSyntax+and+Syncretism+of+the+Person+Case+Constraint%2E%E2%80%9D+Syntax+10+%281%29%3A+2%2D37%2E)
3. Arad, Maya. 2005. Root and Pattern: Hebrew Morpho-Syntax. Dordrecht: Springer. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Arad%2C+Maya%2E+2005%2E+Root+and+Pattern%3A+Hebrew+Morpho%2DSyntax%2E+Dordrecht%3A+Springer%2E)
4. Arregi, Karlos, and Andrew Nevins. 2012. Morphotactics: Basque Auxiliaries and the Structure of Spellout. New York, NY-London: Springer. Baye, Yimam. 2016/2017 [2009]. Yamariňňa Säwas ɨ w [Amharic Grammar][,3rd edn.]. Addis Abeba: Addis Abeba University Printing Press. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Arregi%2C+Karlos%2C+and+Andrew+Nevins%2E+2012%2E+Morphotactics%3A+Basque+Auxiliaries+and+the+Structure+of+Spellout%2E+New+York%2C+NY%2DLondon%3A+Springer%2E+Baye%2C+Yimam%2E+2016%2F2017+%5B2009%5D%2E+Yamari%C5%88%C5%88a+S%C3%A4was+%C9%A8+w+%5BAmharic+Gra)
5. Benmamoun, Elabbas. 2003. “Reciprocals as Plurals.” In Research in Afro-Asiatic Grammar II: Selected Papers from the Fifth Conference on Afroasiatic Languages, Paris 2000, ed. by Jacqueline Lecarme, 53-62. Amsterdam-Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing Company. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Benmamoun%2C+Elabbas%2E+2003%2E+%E2%80%9CReciprocals+as+Plurals%2E%E2%80%9D+In+Research+in+Afro%2DAsiatic+Grammar+II%3A+Selected+Papers+from+the+Fifth+Conference+on+Afroasiatic+Languages%2C+Paris+2000%2C+ed%2E+by+Jacqueline+Lecarme%2C+5)
6. Buccellati, Giorgio. 1996. A Structural Grammar of Babylonian. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Buccellati%2C+Giorgio%2E+1996%2E+A+Structural+Grammar+of+Babylonian%2E+Wiesbaden%3A+Harrassowitz%2E)
7. Buccellati, Giorgio. 1997. “Akkadian.” In The Semitic Languages, ed. by Robert Hetzron, 69-99. London-New York, NY: Routledge. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Buccellati%2C+Giorgio%2E+1997%2E+%E2%80%9CAkkadian%2E%E2%80%9D+In+The+Semitic+Languages%2C+ed%2E+by+Robert+Hetzron%2C+69%2D99%2E+London%2DNew+York%2C+NY%3A+Routledge%2E)
8. Carver, Daniel E. 2016. “The Akkadian Stative: A Non-Finite Verb.” Ancient Near Eastern Studies 53: 1-24. doi:10.2143/ANES.53.0.3154558. [↗](https://doi.org/10.2143/anes.53.0.3154558)
9. Corbett, Greville G. 1991. Gender. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge UP. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Corbett%2C+Greville+G%2E+1991%2E+Gender%2E+Cambridge%2C+MA%3A+Cambridge+UP%2E)
10. Fischer, Wolfdietrich. 1997. “Classical Arabic.” In The Semitic Languages, ed. by Robert Hetzron, 187-219. London-New York, NY: Routledge. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Fischer%2C+Wolfdietrich%2E+1997%2E+%E2%80%9CClassical+Arabic%2E%E2%80%9D+In+The+Semitic+Languages%2C+ed%2E+by+Robert+Hetzron%2C+187%2D219%2E+London%2DNew+York%2C+NY%3A+Routledge%2E)
11. Fukui, Naoki. 2006. Theoretical Comparative Syntax: Studies in Macroparameters. London-New York, NY: Routledge. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Fukui%2C+Naoki%2E+2006%2E+Theoretical+Comparative+Syntax%3A+Studies+in+Macroparameters%2E+London%2DNew+York%2C+NY%3A+Routledge%2E)
12. Fuß, Eric. 2005. The Rise of Agreement: A Formal Approach to the Syntax and Grammaticalization of Verbal Inflection. Amsterdam-Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Getahun, Amare. 1996/1997 [1989]. Z ȁ m ȁ nawi Yamar ɨ ňňňa S ȁ wa sɨ w [A Modern Grammar of Amharic]. Addis Abeba: Commercial Printing Press. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Fu%C3%9F%2C+Eric%2E+2005%2E+The+Rise+of+Agreement%3A+A+Formal+Approach+to+the+Syntax+and+Grammaticalization+of+Verbal+Inflection%2E+Amsterdam%2DPhiladelphia%2C+PA%3A+John+Benjamins+Publishing+Company%2E+Getahun%2C+Amare%2E+1996)
13. Greenberg, Joseph H. 1955. “Internal A-plural in Afroasiatic (Hamito-Semitic).” In Afrikanistische Studien Diedrich Westerman Zum 80, ed. by Jason H. Lucas, 198-204. Berlin: Berlin Akadamie Verlag. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Greenberg%2C+Joseph+H%2E+1955%2E+%E2%80%9CInternal+A%2Dplural+in+Afroasiatic+%28Hamito%2DSemitic%29%2E%E2%80%9D+In+Afrikanistische+Studien+Diedrich+Westerman+Zum+80%2C+ed%2E+by+Jason+H%2E+Lucas%2C+198%2D204%2E+Berlin%3A+Berlin+Akadamie+Verlag%2E)
14. Greenberg, Joseph H. 1991. “The Semitic ‘Intensive’ as Verbal Plurality: A Study of Grammaticalization.” In Semitic Studies in Honour of Wolf Leslau on the Occasion of His Eighty-Fifth Birthday (November 14 th , 1991), ed. by Alan S. Kaye, vol. I., 577-587. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Greenberg%2C+Joseph+H%2E+1991%2E+%E2%80%9CThe+Semitic+%E2%80%98Intensive%E2%80%99+as+Verbal+Plurality%3A+A+Study+of+Grammaticalization%2E%E2%80%9D+In+Semitic+Studies+in+Honour+of+Wolf+Leslau+on+the+Occasion+of+His+Eighty%2DFifth+Birthday+%28Novem)
15. Gut, Ernest-August. 1997. “The Silte Group (East Gurage).” In The Semitic Languages, ed. by Robert Hetzron, 509-534. London-New York, NY: Routledge. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Gut%2C+Ernest%2DAugust%2E+1997%2E+%E2%80%9CThe+Silte+Group+%28East+Gurage%29%2E%E2%80%9D+In+The+Semitic+Languages%2C+ed%2E+by+Robert+Hetzron%2C+509%2D534%2E+London%2DNew+York%2C+NY%3A+Routledge%2E)
16. Hasselbach-Andee, Rebecca. 2007. “External Plural Markers in Semitic, A New Assessment.” In Studies in Semitic and Afroasiatic Linguistics Presented to Gene B. Gragg, ed. by Cynthia L. Miller, 123-135. Chicago, IL, Ann Arbor, MI: the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Hasselbach%2DAndee%2C+Rebecca%2E+2007%2E+%E2%80%9CExternal+Plural+Markers+in+Semitic%2C+A+New+Assessment%2E%E2%80%9D+In+Studies+in+Semitic+and+Afroasiatic+Linguistics+Presented+to+Gene+B%2E+Gragg%2C+ed%2E+by+Cynthia+L%2E+Miller%2C+123%2D135)
17. Hetzron, Robert. 1997. “The Outer South Ethiopic.” In The Semitic Languages, ed. by Robert Hetzron, 535-549. London-New York, NY: Routledge. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Hetzron%2C+Robert%2E+1997%2E+%E2%80%9CThe+Outer+South+Ethiopic%2E%E2%80%9D+In+The+Semitic+Languages%2C+ed%2E+by+Robert+Hetzron%2C+535%2D549%2E+London%2DNew+York%2C+NY%3A+Routledge%2E)
18. Hudson, Grover. 1997. “Amharic and Argobba.” In The Semitic Languages, ed. by Robert Hetzron, 457-485, London-New York, NY: Routledge. [↗](https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315002682.ch20)
19. Jastrow, Otto. 1997. “Neo-Aramaic.” In The Semitic Languages, ed. by Robert Hetzron, 334-377. London-New York, NY: Routledge. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Jastrow%2C+Otto%2E+1997%2E+%E2%80%9CNeo%2DAramaic%2E%E2%80%9D+In+The+Semitic+Languages%2C+ed%2E+by+Robert+Hetzron%2C+334%2D377%2E+London%2DNew+York%2C+NY%3A+Routledge%2E)
20. Kaufman, Alan S. 1997. “Aramaic.” In The Semitic Languages, ed. by Robert Hetzron, 114-130. London-New York, NY: Routledge. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Kaufman%2C+Alan+S%2E+1997%2E+%E2%80%9CAramaic%2E%E2%80%9D+In+The+Semitic+Languages%2C+ed%2E+by+Robert+Hetzron%2C+114%2D130%2E+London%2DNew+York%2C+NY%3A+Routledge%2E)
21. Kihm, Alain. 2008. “Noun Class, Gender, and the Lexicon-Syntax-Morphology Interfaces: A Comparative Study of Niger-Congo and Romance Languages.” In The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Syntax, ed. by Guglielmo Cinque and Richard S. Kayne, 459-512. Oxford: Oxford UP. [↗](https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195136517.013.0011)
22. Kogan, Leonid E., and Andrey V. Korotayev. 1997. “Sayhadic (Epigraphic South Arabian).” In The Semitic Languages, ed. by Robert Hetzron, 220-241. London-New York, NY: Routledge. [↗](https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315002682.ch12)
23. Kouwenberg, N.J.C. 1997. “Gemination in the Akkadian Verb”. Studia Semitica Neerlandica 33. Assen: Van Gorcum. [↗](https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004358638)
24. Kouwenberg, N.J.C. 2006. “The Proto-Semitic Gutturals in Old Assyrian.” In The Akkadian Language in its Semitic Context: Studies in the Akkadian of the Third and Second Millennium BC, ed. by Guy Deutscher, and N.J.C. Kouwenberg, 150-176. Leiden: Netherlands Instituut voor Het Nabije Oosten. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Kouwenberg%2C+N%2EJ%2EC%2E+2006%2E+%E2%80%9CThe+Proto%2DSemitic+Gutturals+in+Old+Assyrian%2E%E2%80%9D+In+The+Akkadian+Language+in+its+Semitic+Context%3A+Studies+in+the+Akkadian+of+the+Third+and+Second+Millennium+BC%2C+ed%2E+by+Guy+Deuts)
25. Kramer, Ruth. 2014. “Gender in Amharic: A Morphosyntactic Approach to Natural and Grammatical Gender.” Language Sciences 43: 102-115. [↗](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langsci.2013.10.004)
26. Kramer, Ruth. 2015. The Morphosyntax of Gender. Oxford: Oxford UP. [↗](https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199679935.001.0001)
27. Leslau, Wolf. 1995. Reference Grammar of Amharic. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Leslau%2C+Wolf%2E+1995%2E+Reference+Grammar+of+Amharic%2E+Wiesbaden%3A+Harrassowitz%2E)
28. Leslau, Wolf. 1997. Ethiopic documents: Argobba Grammar and Dictionary. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Leslau%2C+Wolf%2E+1997%2E+Ethiopic+documents%3A+Argobba+Grammar+and+Dictionary%2E+Wiesbaden%3A+Harrassowitz%2E)
29. Lipiński, Edward. 1997. Semitic Languages: Outline of Comparative Grammar. Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Lipi%C5%84ski%2C+Edward%2E+1997%2E+Semitic+Languages%3A+Outline+of+Comparative+Grammar%2E+Leuven%3A+Uitgeverij+Peeters%2E)
30. Lowenstamm, Jean. 1991. “Vocalic Length and Syllable Structure in Semitic.” In Semitic Studies in Honour of Wolf Leslau on the Occasion of His Eighty-Fifth Birthday (November 14 th , 1991), ed. by Alan S. Kaye, 949-965. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Lowenstamm%2C+Jean%2E+1991%2E+%E2%80%9CVocalic+Length+and+Syllable+Structure+in+Semitic%2E%E2%80%9D+In+Semitic+Studies+in+Honour+of+Wolf+Leslau+on+the+Occasion+of+His+Eighty%2DFifth+Birthday+%28November+14+th+%2C+1991%29%2C+ed%2E+by+Ala)
31. Lyons, Christopher. 1999. Definiteness. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Lyons%2C+Christopher%2E+1999%2E+Definiteness%2E+Cambridge%3A+Cambridge+UP%2E)
32. Manzini, Rita M., Leonardo M. Savoia, and Tesfay Tewolde Yohannes. 2018. “Gender and Number Morphology in Tigrinya.” In International Conference on Eritrean Studies (20-22 July 2016, Proceedings), ed. by Zemenfes Tsige, Saleh Mahmud, Yonas Mesfun, Senai Woldeab, Rediet Kifle and Ghebreberhan Ogbazghi, 41-67. Asmara: Sabour Printing Services. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Manzini%2C+Rita+M%2E%2C+Leonardo+M%2E+Savoia%2C+and+Tesfay+Tewolde+Yohannes%2E+2018%2E+%E2%80%9CGender+and+Number+Morphology+in+Tigrinya%2E%E2%80%9D+In+International+Conference+on+Eritrean+Studies+%2820%2D22+July+2016%2C+Proceedings%29%2C+ed%2E)
33. McCarthy, John. 1985. Formal Problems in Semitic Phonology and Morphology. London: Routledge. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=McCarthy%2C+John%2E+1985%2E+Formal+Problems+in+Semitic+Phonology+and+Morphology%2E+London%3A+Routledge%2E)
34. Miyagawa, Shigeru. 2012. Case, Argument Structure and Word Order. New York, NY: Routledge. [↗](https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203126844)
35. Moscati, Sabatino, Anton Spitaler, Edward Ullendorff, and Wolfram Von Soden. 1964. An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages: Phonology and Morphology. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Moscati%2C+Sabatino%2C+Anton+Spitaler%2C+Edward+Ullendorff%2C+and+Wolfram+Von+Soden%2E+1964%2E+An+Introduction+to+the+Comparative+Grammar+of+the+Semitic+Languages%3A+Phonology+and+Morphology%2E+Wiesbaden%3A+Harrassowit)
36. Pardee, Dennis. 1997. “Ugaritic.” In The Semitic Languages, ed. by Robert Hetzron, 131-144. London-New York, NY: Routledge. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Pardee%2C+Dennis%2E+1997%2E+%E2%80%9CUgaritic%2E%E2%80%9D+In+The+Semitic+Languages%2C+ed%2E+by+Robert+Hetzron%2C+131%2D144%2E+London%2DNew+York%2C+NY%3A+Routledge%2E)
37. Ratcliffe, Robert R. 1998. “Defining Morphological Isogloss: the ‘Broken’ Plural and Semitic subclassification.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 57 (2): 81-123. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Ratcliffe%2C+Robert+R%2E+1998%2E+%E2%80%9CDefining+Morphological+Isogloss%3A+the+%E2%80%98Broken%E2%80%99+Plural+and+Semitic+subclassification%2E%E2%80%9D+Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies+57+%282%29%3A+81%2D123%2E)
38. Raz, Shlomo. 1983. Tigre Grammar and Text. Malibu, CA: Undena Publications. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Raz%2C+Shlomo%2E+1983%2E+Tigre+Grammar+and+Text%2E+Malibu%2C+CA%3A+Undena+Publications%2E)
39. Raz, Shlomo. 1997. “Tigre.” In The Semitic Languages, ed. by Robert Hetzron, 446-456. London-New York, NY: Routledge. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Raz%2C+Shlomo%2E+1997%2E+%E2%80%9CTigre%2E%E2%80%9D+In+The+Semitic+Languages%2C+ed%2E+by+Robert+Hetzron%2C+446%2D456%2E+London%2DNew+York%2C+NY%3A+Routledge%2E)
40. Rubin, Aaron D. 2005. Studies in Semitic Grammaticalization: Harvard Semitic Studies 57. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Rubin%2C+Aaron+D%2E+2005%2E+Studies+in+Semitic+Grammaticalization%3A+Harvard+Semitic+Studies+57%2E+Winona+Lake%2C+IN%3A+Eisenbrauns%2E)
41. Sato, Yosuke. 2010. Minimalist Interfaces. Amsterdam-Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Sato%2C+Yosuke%2E+2010%2E+Minimalist+Interfaces%2E+Amsterdam%2DPhiladelphia%2C+PA%3A+John+Benjamins%2E)
42. Siddiqi, Daniel. 2009. Syntax Within the Word: Economy, Allomorphy, and Argument Selection in Distributed Morphology. Amsterdam-Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Siddiqi%2C+Daniel%2E+2009%2E+Syntax+Within+the+Word%3A+Economy%2C+Allomorphy%2C+and+Argument+Selection+in+Distributed+Morphology%2E+Amsterdam%2DPhiladelphia%2C+PA%3A+John+Benjamins%2E)
43. Simpson, Andrew K. 2009. “The Origin and Development of Nonconcatenative Morpholgy.” Ph.D. Dissertation. Berkeley, CA: University of California. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Simpson%2C+Andrew+K%2E+2009%2E+%E2%80%9CThe+Origin+and+Development+of+Nonconcatenative+Morpholgy%2E%E2%80%9D+Ph%2ED%2E+Dissertation%2E+Berkeley%2C+CA%3A+University+of+California%2E)
44. Steiner, Richard C. 1997. “Ancient Hebrew.” In The Semitic Languages, ed. by Robert Hetzron, 145-173. London-New York, NY: Routledge. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Steiner%2C+Richard+C%2E+1997%2E+%E2%80%9CAncient+Hebrew%2E%E2%80%9D+In+The+Semitic+Languages%2C+ed%2E+by+Robert+Hetzron%2C+145%2D173%2E+London%2DNew+York%2C+NY%3A+Routledge%2E)
45. Tesfay Tewolde Yohannes. 2002. A Modern Grammar of Tigrinya. Rome: Tipografia Ugo Detti. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Tesfay+Tewolde+Yohannes%2E+2002%2E+A+Modern+Grammar+of+Tigrinya%2E+Rome%3A+Tipografia+Ugo+Detti%2E)
46. Tesfay Tewolde Yohannes. 2003. “Plurals of Tigrinya and their Relationship.” Annali 63: 83-98. Napoli: Università degli Studi di Napoli “l’Orientale”. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Tesfay+Tewolde+Yohannes%2E+2003%2E+%E2%80%9CPlurals+of+Tigrinya+and+their+Relationship%2E%E2%80%9D+Annali+63%3A+83%2D98%2E+Napoli%3A+Universit%C3%A0+degli+Studi+di+Napoli+%E2%80%9Cl%E2%80%99Orientale%E2%80%9D%2E)
47. Tesfay Tewolde Yohannes. 2009. “Relationship Among Verb Types and Internal Plurals in Eritrean Semitic.” Quaderni del Dipartimento di Linguistica 19: 46-76. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Tesfay+Tewolde+Yohannes%2E+2009%2E+%E2%80%9CRelationship+Among+Verb+Types+and+Internal+Plurals+in+Eritrean+Semitic%2E%E2%80%9D+Quaderni+del+Dipartimento+di+Linguistica+19%3A+46%2D76%2E)
48. Tesfay Tewolde Yohannes. 2016. DPs, Phi-features and Tense in the Context of Abyssinian (Eritrean and Ethiopian) Semitic Languages. Firenze: Firenze UP. [↗](https://doi.org/10.36253/978-88-6453-329-2)
49. Tesfay Tewolde Yohannes. 2018. “Gender and Number Morphology in Tigrinya.” In International Conference on Eritrean Srudies (20-22 July 2016, Proceedings), ed. by Zemenfes Tsige, Saleh Mahmud, Yonas Mesfun, Senai woldeab, Rediet Kifle and Ghebreberhan Ogbazghi, 99-121. Asmara: Sabour Printing Services. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Tesfay+Tewolde+Yohannes%2E+2018%2E+%E2%80%9CGender+and+Number+Morphology+in+Tigrinya%2E%E2%80%9D+In+International+Conference+on+Eritrean+Srudies+%2820%2D22+July+2016%2C+Proceedings%29%2C+ed%2E+by+Zemenfes+Tsige%2C+Saleh+Mahmud%2C+Yonas+Me)
50. Wagner, Ewald. 1997. “Harari.” In The Semitic Languages, ed. by Robert Hetzron, 486-508. London, New York, NY: Routledge. W ӓ lchli, Bernhard, and Francesca Di Garbi. 2019. “The Dynamics of Gender Complexity.” In Grammatical Gender and Linguistic Complexity, ed. by Francesca Di Garbi, Bruno Olsson, and Bernhard W ӓ lchli, 201-365. Berlin: Language Science Press. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Wagner%2C+Ewald%2E+1997%2E+%E2%80%9CHarari%2E%E2%80%9D+In+The+Semitic+Languages%2C+ed%2E+by+Robert+Hetzron%2C+486%2D508%2E+London%2C+New+York%2C+NY%3A+Routledge%2E+W+%D3%93+lchli%2C+Bernhard%2C+and+Francesca+Di+Garbi%2E+2019%2E+%E2%80%9CThe+Dynamics+of+Gender+Com)

*Updated 24 October 2026*