---
title: "A \"de-Fregean\" semantics (and neo-Gricean pragmatics) for"
description: "Kennedy asks why numerals with superlative modifiers (\"at least six\", \"at most six\") suggest that the… 59 references, cited by 9 papers here."
authors: ["Christopher Kennedy"]
year: 2015
venue: "Semantics and Pragmatics"
source: "https://semprag.org/index.php/sp/article/view/sp.8.10"
doi: "10.3765/sp.8.10"
licence: "CC BY (Semantics and Pragmatics, journal policy)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/kennedy-2015-de-fregean-semantics-neo-gricean/"
---
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# A "de-Fregean" semantics (and neo-Gricean pragmatics) for modified and unmodified numerals

**Authors:** [Christopher Kennedy](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/christopher-kennedy/) · **Year:** 2015 · **Venue:** [Semantics and Pragmatics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/semantics-and-pragmatics/) ([Semantics and Pragmatics 2015](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/semantics-and-pragmatics/2015/)) · **Publisher:** [Linguistic Society of America](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/linguistic-society-of-america/) · **Licence:** [CC BY (Semantics and Pragmatics, journal policy)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://doi.org/10.3765/sp.8.10) · [PDF](https://semprag.org/index.php/sp/article/download/sp.8.10/pdf_8_10) · [DOI 10.3765/sp.8.10](https://doi.org/10.3765/sp.8.10) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W1941814675)

**Citations:** 111 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · [9](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/kennedy-2015-de-fregean-semantics-neo-gricean/cited-by/) in our library, of the 141,840 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
Kennedy asks why numerals with superlative modifiers ("at least six", "at most six") suggest that the speaker does not know the exact number, while comparative ones ("more than six", "fewer than six") do not, even though both only give a bound. This is a theoretical paper with no corpus or experiment. It works through constructed examples and formal semantics. Kennedy first examines Nouwen's 2010 account, which uses blocking plus a silent epistemic modal, and argues it fails for several modal interactions. He then treats bare and modified numerals alike as quantifiers over degrees. Bare numerals mean "exactly n" as part of their literal content. Modifiers differ only in whether their ordering is strict or non-strict. Under this view, a non-strict form is weaker than both its strict counterpart and the bare numeral. Ordinary Quantity reasoning then yields an ignorance implicature, just as it does for disjunction. How these numerals interact with modals, including cases where ignorance disappears, follows from scope. The result is a single pragmatic account of a widely studied puzzle.

## Key points
- Following Nouwen 2010, modifiers fall into two classes:
  - **Class A** uses a strict ordering: more/fewer than, over, under, between.
  - **Class B** uses a non-strict ordering: at least/most, minimally, maximally, from, up to, "or more/fewer".
- Bare numerals are generalized quantifiers over degrees with two-sided (exact) truth conditions, following Kennedy 2013.
- The alternatives for a Class B numeral are its Class A counterpart and the bare numeral. Both asymmetrically entail it, which produces the ignorance inference.
- Büring's 2008 "authoritative readings", where ignorance vanishes under modals, are explained by the relative scope of the numeral and the modal.
- "No more/fewer than" patterns with Class B. Differential "no" excludes a positive difference, so it allows equality. This is why it sounds strange (#) to describe a hexagon's side count with "no more than ten".

## Interesting ideas
- Whether a speaker sounds uncertain is predicted by one feature of the modifier: does its bound include the named number or exclude it?
- Bare numerals are treated as exact in their literal meaning, not as lower bounds that are later strengthened by implicature.
- Ignorance from "at least n" is computed by the same alternative-and-entailment machinery as ignorance from "A or B".
- Whether ignorance appears under modals ("you may invite at most three") is a matter of scope, not lexical ambiguity.
- Sentences that state a known fact with a Class B form, like the hexagon examples, are diagnostic oddities.

## For Mova

How these ideas could serve Mova, our small open language model — its files, stages and tests:

- **I1** (world): Store quantities from text as intervals marked open or closed, and attach a speaker-uncertainty flag whenever the bound is closed.
- **I2** (world): Entity counts from "three apples" can be recorded as exact values, which keeps arithmetic in maths word problems simple and auditable.
- **I3** (frames): The prag implicature module can reuse one alternative generator for disjunctions and numeral modifiers instead of hand-coding special cases.
- **I4** (frames): When a numeral sits under a deontic modal, resolve the scope and read the bound as a permission limit rather than as speaker ignorance.
- **I5** (learn): Use such minimal pairs as negative controls, checking that the system flags the odd variant and accepts the plain negated comparative.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

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- [University of Chicago](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/university-of-chicago/) — University, Chicago, United States · 28 works · 49,773 citations

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## Cite

Cite as: Christopher Kennedy. 2015. A "de-Fregean" semantics (and neo-Gricean pragmatics) for modified and unmodified numerals. Semantics and Pragmatics.

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@article{kennedy2015de,
  title = {{A "de-Fregean" semantics (and neo-Gricean pragmatics) for modified and unmodified numerals}},
  author = {Christopher Kennedy},
  journal = {Semantics and Pragmatics},
  year = {2015},
  doi = {10.3765/sp.8.10},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.3765/sp.8.10}
}
```

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## References

59 references, 2 of them with a card of ours. ↗ leads to the work, «find» searches for one we have no id for yet.

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