---
title: "Englishes in the Expanding Circle: Focus on Asia (2020)"
description: "He then proposes five principles for a lingua franca approach to teaching, including context-relevant… 47 references, cited by 2 papers here."
authors: ["Andy Kirkpatrick"]
year: 2020
venue: "Russian Journal of Linguistics 24"
source: "http://journals.rudn.ru/linguistics/article/viewFile/24399/18486"
doi: "10.22363/2687-0088-2020-24-3-551-568"
licence: "CC BY-NC (journal licence per DOAJ; Russian Journal of Linguistics)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/kirkpatrick-2020-englishes-expanding-circle-focus-asia/"
---
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# Englishes in the Expanding Circle: Focus on Asia

**Authors:** Andy Kirkpatrick · **Year:** 2020 · **Venue:** [Russian Journal of Linguistics 24](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/russian-journal-of-linguistics/) ([Russian Journal of Linguistics 2020](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/russian-journal-of-linguistics/2020/)) · **Publisher:** [Peoples' Friendship University of Russia](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/peoples-friendship-university-of-russia/) · **Licence:** [CC BY-NC (journal licence per DOAJ; Russian Journal of Linguistics)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://doi.org/10.22363/2687-0088-2020-24-3-551-568) · [PDF](http://journals.rudn.ru/linguistics/article/viewFile/24399/18486) · [DOI 10.22363/2687-0088-2020-24-3-551-568](https://doi.org/10.22363/2687-0088-2020-24-3-551-568) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W3081725449)

**Citations:** 39 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · [2](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/kirkpatrick-2020-englishes-expanding-circle-focus-asia/cited-by/) in our library, of the 141,840 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
Kirkpatrick revisits Kachru's model, in which Expanding Circle countries treat English as a school-taught foreign language with no internal function and borrow native-speaker norms. He argues that this picture no longer fits East and Southeast Asia, and traces English's growth along two lines. Within countries, the evidence is English's spread as a language of education, with China as the main case and Nepal as a contrast. Between countries, it is English as a lingua franca, illustrated with naturally occurring talk from the Asian Corpus of English (ACE). Census and survey estimates (after Bolton and Bacon-Shone) put Asian Expanding Circle English users at roughly the size of the global native-speaker population. The author shows that local Englishes are acquiring their own discourse and lexical traits. He then proposes five principles for a lingua franca approach to teaching, including context-relevant assessment and lingua franca learning environments. On policy, he argues that English should be postponed to secondary school so primary schooling can build literacy in national and home languages. The work matters because it reframes which English norms and learners are typical in Asia.

## Key points
- Asia holds about 34% of the world's living languages (2301 of 7102), so the paper limits itself mainly to East and Southeast Asia, with Nepal added for the education discussion.
- Table 1 estimates about 335.1 million English users across Asian Expanding Circle societies. China alone accounts for about 276 million (roughly 20%).
- In China, English is compulsory from Grade 3 and is one of three core gao kao subjects, alongside Mathematics and Chinese. Over 1000 of the country's 1448 tertiary institutions run English-medium (EMI) programmes.
- English is the only working language of ASEAN. Four members are classed as Outer Circle, five as Expanding Circle, and Myanmar is hard to place because of its decades of isolation after 1962.
- The paper puts forward five principles for lingua franca teaching. Two examples are that teachers who share their learners' backgrounds are suitable models, and that assessment must fit the lingua franca context.

## Interesting ideas
- Speakers of Chinese English often state the cause before the effect, sometimes chaining several "because" clauses before a closing "so". This shows that the order of causal clauses depends on the variety, not a universal default.
- Online writers coin critical blends by respelling English words, as in "democrazy" and "goveruption", where the altered spelling carries the speaker's stance. Treating such forms as typos would lose that meaning.
- The ACE corpus captures English as it is actually used between non-native speakers. The paper argues that judging such users against native norms misrepresents what they can do.
- The principle that assessment must match the context implies grading for successful communication of meaning, not for native-like form.
- The paper treats varieties with their own norms as legitimate systems rather than collections of errors.

## For Mova

How these ideas could serve Mova, our small open language model — its files, stages and tests:

- **I1** (frames): Causal frame extraction should accept cause-first sequences and chains of stacked "because" clauses, linking each reason to the final effect rather than assuming the effect comes first.
- **I2** (tokens): The tokenizer and lemmatizer could flag near-miss blends of two known words and keep both source lemmas, so later stages can recover the evaluative meaning.
- **I3** (learn): Evaluation suites should include naturally occurring lingua franca English as a separate slice, so that drops in accuracy on non-native text are measured rather than hidden.
- **I4** (answer): School-test and QA readers should be scored on whether they extract the intended meaning from non-standard phrasing, not on whether the input resembles native English.
- **I5** (tree): Variety-specific constructions could be handled as a dialect layer during UD conversion and parsing, labelled by variety instead of being forced into "corrected" native analyses.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

## Institutions

- [Griffith University](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/griffith-university/) — University, Brisbane, Australia · 4 works · 4,143 citations

📚 Shelves (2): [🎭 Arts and Humanities](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/arts-and-humanities/) · 9,296 works · [🗣️ Language and Linguistics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/arts-and-humanities/language-and-linguistics/) · 9,206 works

🧭 Topics (1): [English](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/english/) · 1,373 works

## Cite

Cite as: Andy Kirkpatrick. 2020. Englishes in the Expanding Circle: Focus on Asia. Russian Journal of Linguistics 24.

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@article{kirkpatrick2020englishes,
  title = {{Englishes in the Expanding Circle: Focus on Asia}},
  author = {Andy Kirkpatrick},
  journal = {Russian Journal of Linguistics 24},
  year = {2020},
  doi = {10.22363/2687-0088-2020-24-3-551-568},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.22363/2687-0088-2020-24-3-551-568}
}
```

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## References

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45. История статьи: Дата поступления в редакцию: 19 марта 2020 Дата принятия к печати: 15 июля 2020 [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C%D0%B8%3A+%D0%94%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%B2+%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8E%3A+19+%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0+2020+%D0%94%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%BA+%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%3A+15+%D0%B8%D1%8E%D0%BB%D1%8F+2020)
46. Bionote: Andy KIRKPATRICK is Professor in the Department of Humanities, Languages and Social Science, at Griffith University, Australia and is a Fellow of the Australian Academy of the Humanities. His most recent books include The Routledge International Handbook of Language Education Policy in Asia (co-editor with Anthony J. Liddicoat), The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Asian Varieties of English (2020, co-editor with Kingsley Bolton and Werner Botha) and Trilingual Education in Hong Kong Primary Schools (2019, co-author with Wang Lixun). The second edition of the Routledge Handbook of World English, of which he is the sole editor, will be published in late 2020. His monograph Is English an Asian Language? will be published by Cambridge University Press in 2021. Contact information: Griffith University, Humanities, Languages and Social Science 170 Kessels Road, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia e-mail: a.kirkpatrick@griffith.edu.au ORCID ID: 0000 0002 4470 7089 Scopus ID: 22934945300 [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Bionote%3A+Andy+KIRKPATRICK+is+Professor+in+the+Department+of+Humanities%2C+Languages+and+Social+Science%2C+at+Griffith+University%2C+Australia+and+is+a+Fellow+of+the+Australian+Academy+of+the+Humanities%2E+His)
47. Сведения об авторе: Энди КИРКПАТРИК – профессор факультета гуманитарных наук, языков и социальных наук в Университете Гриффита, Австралия. Член Австралийской академии гуманитарных наук. Его опубликованные за последнее время книги включают The Routledge International Handbook of Language Education Policy in Asia (соредактор с Энтони Дж. Лиддикоутом), The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Asian Varieties of English (2020, совместно с Кингсли Болтоном. и Вернером Бота) и Trilingual Education in Hong Kong Primary Schools (2019, соредактор с Ван Лисюнем). Его монография Is English an Asian Language? будет опубликована Издательством Кембриджского университета в 2021 г. Контактная информация: Griffith University, Humanities, Languages and Social Science 170 Kessels Road, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia e-mail: a.kirkpatrick@griffith.edu.au ORCID ID: 0000 0002 4470 7089 Scopus ID: 22934945300 [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%BE%D0%B1+%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%3A+%D0%AD%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8+%D0%9A%D0%98%D0%A0%D0%9A%D0%9F%D0%90%D0%A2%D0%A0%D0%98%D0%9A+%E2%80%93+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%80+%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0+%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%2C+%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2+%D0%B8+%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA+%D0%B2+%D0%A3%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5+%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%84%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%2C+%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%8F%2E+%D0%A7%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD+%D0%90%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%2E+%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0)

*Updated 24 October 2026*