---
title: "Prosodic conditioning of the null complementizer in English (2023)"
description: "English sometimes lets \"that\" be dropped before an embedded clause ( I believe Sue left ) and sometimes forbids it, for… 143 references."
authors: ["William W. Kruger"]
year: 2023
venue: "Glossa: a journal of general linguistics"
source: "https://www.glossa-journal.org/article/id/8860/"
doi: "10.16995/glossa.8860"
licence: "CC BY 4.0"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/kruger-2023-prosodic-conditioning-null-complementizer-english/"
---
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# Prosodic conditioning of the null complementizer in English

**Authors:** William W. Kruger · **Year:** 2023 · **Venue:** [Glossa: a journal of general linguistics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/glossa-a-journal-of-general-linguistics/) ([Glossa a journal of general linguistics 2023](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/glossa-a-journal-of-general-linguistics/2023/)) · **Publisher:** [Ubiquity Press](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/ubiquity-press/) · **Licence:** [CC BY 4.0](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://doi.org/10.16995/glossa.8860) · [PDF](https://www.glossa-journal.org/article/8860/galley/23435/download) · [DOI 10.16995/glossa.8860](https://doi.org/10.16995/glossa.8860) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W4387321491)

**Citations:** 0 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14)

## Summary
English sometimes lets "that" be dropped before an embedded clause (*I believe Sue left*) and sometimes forbids it, for example with a clause in subject position or one separated from its verb by an inserted remark. Kruger, building on Bošković & Lasnik (2003) and An (2007a; b), offers one prosodic explanation instead of a set of syntactic ones. Reviewing the standard judgement data, he finds a shared pattern. Every context that bans the zero form forces an Intonational Phrase (IP) boundary directly before the complementizer. Contexts that allow it let the matrix and embedded clause be pronounced as a single IP. He analyses the zero form as an allomorph of C that is restricted to non-initial positions inside a prosodic domain. "That" can appear in any position, so the choice stays optional wherever zero is licensed. A historical account supports this: the complementizer weakened gradually toward nothing, but only where reduction was allowed, because the starts of prosodic domains resist weakening (Domain-Initial Strengthening). The result links an old syntactic puzzle to general phonetic tendencies found across languages.

## Key points
- The paper looks at nine environments where null C is impossible: clauses functioning as subjects, clauses fronted as topics, clauses that have been extraposed, clauses interrupted by a parenthetical, complements of verbs that lack bridge status, clauses that complement nouns, Right-Node-Raising, Gapping, and Pseudoclefts.
- Null C is allowed when the embedded clause directly follows a lexical head: a verb (*believe*), an adjective (*apparent*), or a noun heading a restrictive object relative.
- The proposed diachronic path runs from /ðæt/ through weak forms such as /(ð)ət/ and /-t/ to zero, which was reached in late Middle English.
- A parallel case is the /h/ of auxiliary *has*. It can drop mid-phrase but is kept after a boundary, as in questions or after a parenthetical. The author names the medial weakening effect Domain-Internal Weakening (DIW).
- The account predicts that longer clauses and post-focus junctures make null C less likely. It does not explain the that-trace and anti-that-trace effects, which the author attributes to other factors.

## Interesting ideas
- Many unrelated-looking constructions are reduced to one surface condition: is there a forced boundary just before the slot?
- Variants of a function word are modelled as optional allomorphs, each licensed by its position, rather than as free variation.
- Phrase length and focus are treated as soft pressures that raise the chance of a boundary, so licensing becomes graded rather than all-or-nothing.
- The positional prohibition gives a clean negative diagnostic, since zero C in a boundary-initial slot is ungrammatical.

## For Mova

How these ideas could serve Mova, our small open language model — its files, stages and tests:

- **I1** (tree): a bare finite clause after a comma or parenthetical can be scored as unlikely to be a "that"-less ccomp of the preceding verb, which pushes the parser toward parataxis or another attachment with an explainable reason.
- **I2** (back): the generator can omit "that" only when the complement directly follows its verb, adjective or noun, and keep it for clausal subjects, topicalized clauses and after inserted material.
- **I3** (back): when realizing a complement, the chance of dropping "that" can be lowered as the embedded clause gets longer or follows a focused word, giving more natural output.
- **I4** (learn): silver parses that posit a dropped complementizer right after a comma or at sentence start can be flagged as likely errors or fed into self-induced repair rules as negative controls.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

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- [Arizona State University](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/arizona-state-university/) — University, Tempe, United States · 50 works · 2,032 citations

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## Cite

Cite as: William W. Kruger. 2023. Prosodic conditioning of the null complementizer in English. Glossa: a journal of general linguistics.

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@article{kruger2023prosodic,
  title = {{Prosodic conditioning of the null complementizer in English}},
  author = {William W. Kruger},
  journal = {Glossa: a journal of general linguistics},
  year = {2023},
  doi = {10.16995/glossa.8860},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.16995/glossa.8860}
}
```

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- [next → Prosodic realization and interpretation of English imperatives](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/mcclay-2023-prosodic-realization-interpretation-english-imperatives/)
- [↑ back to papers of 2023](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/2023/page/15/)

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