---
title: "On Generative Spoken Language Modeling from — Lakhotia 2021"
description: "The paper introduces Generative Spoken Language Modeling (GSLM): learning both the sound system and the linguistic structure of a language directly from…"
authors: ["Kushal Lakhotia", "Eugene Kharitonov", "Wei-Ning Hsu", "Yossi Adi", "Adam Polyak", "Benjamin Bolte", "Tu-Anh Nguyen", "Jade Copet", "Alexei Baevski", "Abdelrahman Mohamed", "Emmanuel Dupoux"]
year: 2021
venue: "Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/2021.tacl-1.79/"
doi: "10.1162/tacl_a_00430"
licence: "CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/lakhotia-2021-generative-spoken-language-modeling-raw/"
---
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# On Generative Spoken Language Modeling from Raw Audio

**Authors:** [Kushal Lakhotia](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/kushal-lakhotia/), [Eugene Kharitonov](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/eugene-kharitonov/), [Wei-Ning Hsu](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/wei-ning-hsu/), [Yossi Adi](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/yossi-adi/), Adam Polyak, [Benjamin Bolte](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/benjamin-bolte/), Tu-Anh Nguyen, [Jade Copet](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/jade-copet/), [Alexei Baevski](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/alexei-baevski/), [Abdelrahman Mohamed](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/abdelrahman-mohamed/), [Emmanuel Dupoux](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/emmanuel-dupoux/) · **Year:** 2021 · **Venue:** Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics · **Licence:** [CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/2021.tacl-1.79/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/2021.tacl-1.79.pdf) · [DOI 10.1162/tacl\_a\_00430](https://doi.org/10.1162/tacl_a_00430) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W3129009457)

**Citations:** 75 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · [90](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/lakhotia-2021-generative-spoken-language-modeling-raw/cited-by/) in our library, of the 140884 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
The paper introduces Generative Spoken Language Modeling (GSLM): learning both the sound system and the linguistic structure of a language directly from raw audio, without transcripts or labels. The authors argue that the main obstacle in this area is the lack of comparable evaluation. Their core contribution is therefore a metric suite that covers encoding and generation at the acoustic and language levels. To score generated audio, they transcribe it with a pretrained ASR system and apply text-style measures to the result. They then check these scores against human ratings and against cheaper zero-shot probes from the Zero Resource Speech Challenges.

The baseline pipeline has three unsupervised parts:
- a speech-to-unit encoder that produces discrete pseudo-text,
- a Transformer unit language model (uLM),
- a Tacotron 2 unit-to-speech decoder.

All are trained on roughly 6k hours of Libri-Light. The generated speech sounds English-like, with plausible local syntax, but quality at the language level still lags. The benchmark gives textless NLP, which matters for languages with little written data, a shared reference point.

## Key points
- The authors cross three encoders (CPC, wav2vec 2.0, HuBERT) with three codebook sizes (50, 100, 200 units). The best setting depends on both the task and the encoder, and some combinations come close to text-based systems.
- The metrics fall into three groups:
  - acoustic encoding: ABX-within and ABX-across;
  - language encoding: spot-the-word and Syntax-Acc;
  - generation: PER/CER-from-ASR, AUC-of-VERT/PPX and cont-BLEU, with human MOS and MMOS ratings as validation.
- For resynthesis, 200 units were clearly best, reflecting the bitrate vs. intelligibility trade-off. For language modeling, more units did not always help.
- The choice of units also shifts the effect of sampling temperature. The authors therefore normalize temperature using perplexity and diversity anchor points derived from oracle text.
- The evaluation code and trained models are open-sourced in fairseq (examples/textless_nlp/gslm). Audio samples are available at speechbot.github.io/gslm.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

Fields: [Natural language processing](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/nlp/)

Topics: [Language models & pretraining](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/language-models/) · [Speech & spoken language](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/speech/)

## Institutions

- [Meta](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/companies/meta/) — Company, Menlo Park, United States · 137 works · 196 530 citations
- [Institut national de recherche en sciences et technologies du numérique](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/labs/institut-national-de-recherche-en-sciences-et-technologies-du-numerique/) — Research institute, Le Chesnay-Rocquencourt, France · 55 works · 16 624 citations
- [École des hautes études en sciences sociales](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/labs/ecole-des-hautes-etudes-en-sciences-sociales/) — Research institute, Paris, France · 3 works · 1 926 citations
- [Laboratoire de Sciences Cognitives et Psycholinguistique](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/labs/laboratoire-de-sciences-cognitives-et-psycholinguistique/) — Research institute, Paris, France · 2 works · 687 citations

## Cite

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@article{lakhotia2021generative,
  title = {{On Generative Spoken Language Modeling from Raw Audio}},
  author = {Lakhotia, Kushal and Kharitonov, Eugene and Hsu, Wei-Ning and Adi, Yossi and Polyak, Adam and Bolte, Benjamin and Nguyen, Tu-Anh and Copet, Jade and Baevski, Alexei and Mohamed, Abdelrahman and Dupoux, Emmanuel},
  journal = {Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics},
  year = {2021},
  doi = {10.1162/tacl\_a\_00430},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.1162/tacl_a_00430}
}
```

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