---
title: "Alexandria — paper by Mekki et al. (2026) — summary and ideas"
description: "The authors present Alexandria, a community-built English–Dialectal Arabic parallel corpus. 41 references, cited by 4 papers here."
authors: ["Abdellah EL Mekki", "Samar M. Magdy", "Houdaifa Atou", "Ruwa AbuHweidi", "Baraah Qawasmeh", "Omer Nacar", "Thikra Al-hibiri", "Razan Saadie", "Hamzah A. Alsayadi", "Nadia Ghezaiel Hammouda", "Alshima Mohammed Alkhazimi", "Aya Hamod", "Al-Yas Yaqoob Al-Ghafri", "Wesam El-Sayed", "Asila Ismail al Sharji", "Mohamad Ballout", "Anas Belfathi", "Karim Ghaddar", "Serry Sibaee", "Alaa Aoun", "Aeej Mohammed Aseri", "Lina Abureesh", "Ahlam Bashiti", "Majdal Yousef", "Abdulaziz Hafiz", "Yehdih Mohamed", "Emira Hamedtou", "Brakehe Emehah", "Rahaf Alhamouri", "Youssef Nafea", "Aya El Aatar", "Walid Al-Dhabyani", "Emhemed S. Hamed", "Sara Shatnawi", "Fakhraddin Alwajih", "Khalid Elkhidir", "Ashwag Alasmari", "Abdurrahman Gerrio", "Omar Said Alshahri", "AbdelRahim A. Elmadany", "Ismail Berrada", "Amir Azad Adli Al-kathiri", "Fadi Zaraket", "Mustafa Jarrar", "Yahya Mohamed EL Hadj", "Hassan Alhuzali", "Muhammad Abdul-Mageed"]
year: 2026
venue: "Proceedings of the 64th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/2026.acl-long.1503/"
doi: "10.18653/v1/2026.acl-long.1503"
licence: "CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/mekki-2026-alexandria-multi-domain-dialectal-arabic/"
---
[Elamur Research](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/) · [this page in HTML](https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/mekki-2026-alexandria-multi-domain-dialectal-arabic/)

[home](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/) / [papers](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/) / [2026](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/2026/page/4/) / Alexandria: A Multi-Domain Dialectal Arabic Machine Translation Dataset for Culturally Inclusive and Linguistically Diverse LLMs

# Alexandria: A Multi-Domain Dialectal Arabic Machine Translation Dataset for Culturally Inclusive and Linguistically Diverse LLMs

**Authors:** [Abdellah EL Mekki](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/abdellah-el-mekki/), [Samar M. Magdy](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/samar-m-magdy/), [Houdaifa Atou](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/houdaifa-atou/), Ruwa AbuHweidi, [Baraah Qawasmeh](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/baraah-qawasmeh/), [Omer Nacar](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/omer-nacar/), Thikra Al-hibiri, Razan Saadie, [Hamzah A. Alsayadi](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/hamzah-a-alsayadi/), Nadia Ghezaiel Hammouda, Alshima Mohammed Alkhazimi, [Aya Hamod](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/aya-hamod/), Al-Yas Yaqoob Al-Ghafri, Wesam El-Sayed, Asila Ismail al Sharji, [Mohamad Ballout](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/mohamad-ballout/), Anas Belfathi, Karim Ghaddar, [Serry Sibaee](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/serry-sibaee/), Alaa Aoun, Aeej Mohammed Aseri, Lina Abureesh, [Ahlam Bashiti](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/ahlam-bashiti/), Majdal Yousef, Abdulaziz Hafiz, Yehdih Mohamed, Emira Hamedtou, Brakehe Emehah, [Rahaf Alhamouri](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/rahaf-alhamouri/), [Youssef Nafea](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/youssef-nafea/), Aya El Aatar, Walid Al-Dhabyani, Emhemed S. Hamed, [Sara Shatnawi](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/sara-shatnawi/), [Fakhraddin Alwajih](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/fakhraddin-alwajih/), Khalid Elkhidir, [Ashwag Alasmari](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/ashwag-alasmari/), Abdurrahman Gerrio, [Omar Said Alshahri](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/omar-said-alshahri/), [AbdelRahim A. Elmadany](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/abdelrahim-elmadany/), [Ismail Berrada](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/ismail-berrada/), Amir Azad Adli Al-kathiri, [Fadi Zaraket](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/fadi-zaraket/), [Mustafa Jarrar](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/mustafa-jarrar/), Yahya Mohamed EL Hadj, [Hassan Alhuzali](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/hassan-alhuzali/) and [Muhammad Abdul-Mageed](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/muhammad-abdul-mageed/) · **Year:** 2026 · **Venue:** [Proceedings of the 64th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/acl/) ([ACL 2026](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/acl/2026/)) · **Publisher:** [Association for Computational Linguistics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/association-for-computational-linguistics/) · **Licence:** [CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/2026.acl-long.1503/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/2026.acl-long.1503.pdf) · [DOI 10.18653/v1/2026.acl-long.1503](https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/2026.acl-long.1503) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W7166860356)

**Citations:** 0 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · [4](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/mekki-2026-alexandria-multi-domain-dialectal-arabic/cited-by/) in our library, of the 149,439 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
In day-to-day life, Arabic speakers mostly use their local dialects instead of Modern Standard Arabic. MT systems trained mainly on MSA or English-centric data therefore handle dialectal input poorly. Earlier parallel resources (PADIC, MADAR, FLORES+) have limits: narrow domains, short sentences, or dialect entries that drift toward MSA. The authors present Alexandria, a community-built English–Dialectal Arabic parallel corpus. It was created over six months by 55 contributors from 13 Arab countries.

The workflow had three phases. First, an LLM generated English multi-turn conversations from topics and gendered personas. Next, native speakers translated them by hand into their local dialects. Finally, peers reviewed the translations for dialect authenticity, gender alignment, register, faithfulness, and formatting. Each item carries city-of-origin metadata and a speaker–addressee gender configuration.

The resource can serve as training data and as a benchmark. When Arabic-aware LLMs were tested on it, they mostly preserved meaning and gender constraints but often failed to produce genuinely dialectal output. This matters for building inclusive, locally useful Arabic language technology.

## Key points
- **Size and scope:** 107K turns in 34,488 conversations, spanning 13 countries and 11 high-impact domains (e.g., health, education, agriculture, finance). Labels are city-level, compared with country-level labels in PADIC and FLORES+.
- **Conversation design:** English source conversations have 2–4 turns, with about 550 topics per country/domain. Turns are annotated for gender direction. Female-to-female exchanges make up only 12.60% of the data, but the dev and test splits are balanced across gender directions.
- **Human evaluation:**
  - Gender accuracy exceeds 90%, and semantic adequacy averages above 3/5.
  - Dialectness/fluency drops to about 2/5 for some model–country pairs.
  - Mauritanian is the hardest variety; Saudi and Sudanese score highest.
- **Model comparison:** Gemini-3-flash and Command-A form the Pareto frontier for the adequacy–dialectness trade-off, while gpt-oss-120b is the weakest on dialectness. Explicit reasoning mostly lowers translation quality, except for gemini-3-flash (+2.0 spBLEU for English→Dialect).
- **Release:** The data, creation prompts, translation and revision guidelines, and evaluation code are available at github.com/UBC-NLP/Alexandria.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

📚 Shelves (4): [🖥️ Computer Science](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/computer-science/) · 18,614 works · [🤖 Artificial Intelligence](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/computer-science/artificial-intelligence/) · 17,965 works · [🎭 Arts and Humanities](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/arts-and-humanities/) · 17,450 works · [🗣️ Language and Linguistics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/arts-and-humanities/language-and-linguistics/) · 17,296 works

🧭 Topics (2): [🔁 Machine translation](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/machine-translation/) · 1,105 works · [Semitic languages](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/semitic-languages/) · 3,066 works

## Cite

Cite as: Abdellah EL Mekki, Samar M. Magdy, Houdaifa Atou, Ruwa AbuHweidi, Baraah Qawasmeh, Omer Nacar, Thikra Al-hibiri, Razan Saadie, Hamzah A. Alsayadi, Nadia Ghezaiel Hammouda, Alshima Mohammed Alkhazimi, Aya Hamod, Al-Yas Yaqoob Al-Ghafri, Wesam El-Sayed, Asila Ismail al Sharji, Mohamad Ballout, Anas Belfathi, Karim Ghaddar, Serry Sibaee, Alaa Aoun, Aeej Mohammed Aseri, Lina Abureesh, Ahlam Bashiti, Majdal Yousef, Abdulaziz Hafiz, Yehdih Mohamed, Emira Hamedtou, Brakehe Emehah, Rahaf Alhamouri, Youssef Nafea, Aya El Aatar, Walid Al-Dhabyani, Emhemed S. Hamed, Sara Shatnawi, Fakhraddin Alwajih, Khalid Elkhidir, Ashwag Alasmari, Abdurrahman Gerrio, Omar Said Alshahri, AbdelRahim A. Elmadany, Ismail Berrada, Amir Azad Adli Al-kathiri, Fadi Zaraket, Mustafa Jarrar, Yahya Mohamed EL Hadj, Hassan Alhuzali and Muhammad Abdul-Mageed. 2026. Alexandria: A Multi-Domain Dialectal Arabic Machine Translation Dataset for Culturally Inclusive and Linguistically Diverse LLMs. Proceedings of the 64th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers).

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{mekki2026alexandria,
  title = {{Alexandria: A Multi-Domain Dialectal Arabic Machine Translation Dataset for Culturally Inclusive and Linguistically Diverse LLMs}},
  author = {Abdellah {EL Mekki}, Samar M. Magdy, Houdaifa Atou, Ruwa AbuHweidi, Baraah Qawasmeh, Omer Nacar, Thikra Al-hibiri, Razan Saadie, Hamzah A. Alsayadi, Nadia Ghezaiel Hammouda, Alshima Mohammed Alkhazimi, Aya Hamod, Al-Yas Yaqoob Al-Ghafri, Wesam El-Sayed, Asila Ismail {al Sharji}, Mohamad Ballout, Anas Belfathi, Karim Ghaddar, Serry Sibaee, Alaa Aoun, Aeej Mohammed Aseri, Lina Abureesh, Ahlam Bashiti, Majdal Yousef, Abdulaziz Hafiz, Yehdih Mohamed, Emira Hamedtou, Brakehe Emehah, Rahaf Alhamouri, Youssef Nafea, Aya {El Aatar}, Walid Al-Dhabyani, Emhemed S. Hamed, Sara Shatnawi, Fakhraddin Alwajih, Khalid Elkhidir, Ashwag Alasmari, Abdurrahman Gerrio, Omar Said Alshahri, AbdelRahim A. Elmadany, Ismail Berrada, Amir Azad Adli Al-kathiri, Fadi Zaraket, Mustafa Jarrar, Yahya Mohamed {EL Hadj}, Hassan Alhuzali and Muhammad Abdul-Mageed},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 64th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)},
  year = {2026},
  doi = {10.18653/v1/2026.acl-long.1503},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/2026.acl-long.1503}
}
```

- [← previous Aleph-Alpha-GermanWeb: Improving German-language LLM pre-training with model-based data curation and synthetic data generation](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/burns-2026-aleph-alpha-germanweb-improving-german/)
- [next → Anthropomimetic Uncertainty: What Verbalized Uncertainty in Language Models is Missing](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/ulmer-2026-anthropomimetic-uncertainty-what-verbalized-uncertainty/)
- [↑ back to papers of 2026](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/2026/page/4/)

## References

41 references, 21 of them with a card of ours. ↗ leads to the work, «find» searches for one we have no id for yet.

1. Muhammad Abdul-Mageed, Chiyu Zhang, AbdelRahim Elmadany, and Lyle Ungar. 2020. Toward micro-dialect identification in diaglossic and code-switched environments. In Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP), pages 5855–5876, Online. Association for Computational Linguistics. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Muhammad+Abdul%2DMageed%2C+Chiyu+Zhang%2C+AbdelRahim+Elmadany%2C+and+Lyle+Ungar%2E+2020%2E+Toward+micro%2Ddialect+identification+in+diaglossic+and+code%2Dswitched+environments%2E+In+Proceedings+of+the+2020+Conference+o)
2. Idris Abdulmumin, Sthembiso Mkhwanazi, Mahlatse Mbooi, Shamsuddeen Hassan Muhammad, Ibrahim Said Ahmad, Neo Putini, Miehleketo Math-ebula, Matimba Shingange, Tajuddeen Gwadabe, and Vukosi Marivate. 2024. Correcting FLORES evaluation dataset for four African languages. In Proceedings of the Ninth Conference on Machine Translation, pages 570–578, Miami, Florida, USA. Association for Computational Linguistics. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Idris+Abdulmumin%2C+Sthembiso+Mkhwanazi%2C+Mahlatse+Mbooi%2C+Shamsuddeen+Hassan+Muhammad%2C+Ibrahim+Said+Ahmad%2C+Neo+Putini%2C+Miehleketo+Math%2Debula%2C+Matimba+Shingange%2C+Tajuddeen+Gwadabe%2C+and+Vukosi+Marivate%2E+20)
3. Eneko Agirre, Daniel Cer, Mona Diab, and Aitor Gonzalez-Agirre. 2012. [SemEval-2012 task 6: A pilot on semantic textual similarity](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/agirre-2012-semeval-2012-task-6-pilot/). In *SEM 2012: The First Joint Conference on Lexical and Computational Semantics – Volume 1: Proceedings of the main conference and the shared task, and Volume 2: Proceedings of the Sixth International Workshop on Semantic Evaluation (SemEval 2012), pages 385– 393, Montréal, Canada. Association for Computational Linguistics. Muhammad Abdul-Mageed acknowledges support from Canada Research Chairs (CRC), the Natu-[https://alliancecan.ca](https://alliancecan.ca) https://arc.ubc.ca/ubc-arc-sockeye [↗](https://alliancecan.ca)
4. Bashar Alhafni, Nizar Habash, and Houda Bouamor. 2022. [The Arabic parallel gender corpus 2.0: Extensions and analyses](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/alhafni-2022-arabic-parallel-gender-corpus-2/). In Proceedings of the Thirteenth Language Resources and Evaluation Conference, pages 1870–1884, Marseille, France. European Language Resources Association.
5. Yazeed Alnumay, Alexandre Barbet, Anna Bialas, William Darling, Shaan Desai, Joan Devassy, Kyle Duffy, Stephanie Howe, Olivia Lasche, Justin Lee, Anirudh Shrinivason, and Jennifer Tracey. 2025. [Command r7b arabic: A small, enterprise focused, multilingual, and culturally aware arabic llm](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/alnumay-2025-command-r7b-arabic-small-enterprise/). Preprint, arXiv:2503.14603. [↗](https://arxiv.org/abs/2503.14603)
6. Arwa Alqudsi, Nazlia Omar, and Khalid Shaker. 2014. Arabic machine translation: a survey. Artificial Intelligence Review, 42(4):549–572. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Arwa+Alqudsi%2C+Nazlia+Omar%2C+and+Khalid+Shaker%2E+2014%2E+Arabic+machine+translation%3A+a+survey%2E+Artificial+Intelligence+Review%2C+42%284%29%3A549%E2%80%93572%2E)
7. Fakhraddin Alwajih, Abdellah El Mekki, Samar Mohamed Magdy, AbdelRahim A. Elmadany, Omer Nacar, El Moatez Billah Nagoudi, Reem Abdel-Salam, Hanin Atwany, Youssef Nafea, Abdulfattah Mohammed Yahya, Rahaf Alhamouri, Hamzah A. Alsayadi, Hiba Zayed, Sara Shatnawi, Serry Sibaee, Yasir Ech-chammakhy, Walid Al-Dhabyani, Marwa Mohamed Ali, Imen Jarraya, and 25 others. 2025a. [Palm: A culturally inclusive and linguistically diverse dataset for Arabic LLMs](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/alwajih-2025-palm-culturally-inclusive-linguistically-diverse/). In Proceedings of the 63rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers), pages 32871–32894, Vienna, Austria. Association for Computational Linguistics.
8. Fakhraddin Alwajih, Samar M. Magdy, Abdellah El Mekki, Omer Nacar, Youssef Nafea, Safaa Taher Abdelfadil, Abdulfattah Mohammed Yahya, Hamzah Luqman, Nada Almarwani, Samah Aloufi, Baraah Qawasmeh, Houdaifa Atou, Serry Sibaee, Hamzah A. Alsayadi, Walid Al-Dhabyani, Maged S. Al-shaibani, Aya El aatar, Nour Qandos, Rahaf Alhamouri, and 18 others. 2025b. [Pearl: A multimodal culturally-aware Arabic instruction dataset](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/alwajih-2025-pearl-multimodal-culturally-aware-arabic/). In Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2025, pages 23048–23079, Suzhou, China. Association for Computational Linguistics.
9. M Saiful Bari, Yazeed Alnumay, Norah A. Alzahrani, Nouf M. Alotaibi, Hisham Abdullah Alyahya, Sultan AlRashed, Faisal Abdulrahman Mirza, Shaykhah Z. Alsubaie, Hassan A. Alahmed, Ghadah Alabduljab-bar, Raghad Alkhathran, Yousef Almushayqih, Ra-neem Alnajim, Salman Alsubaihi, Maryam Al Mansour, Saad Amin Hassan, Dr. Majed Alrubaian, Ali Alammari, Zaki Alawami, and 7 others. 2025. AL-Lam: Large language models for arabic and english. In The Thirteenth International Conference on Learning Representations. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=M+Saiful+Bari%2C+Yazeed+Alnumay%2C+Norah+A%2E+Alzahrani%2C+Nouf+M%2E+Alotaibi%2C+Hisham+Abdullah+Alyahya%2C+Sultan+AlRashed%2C+Faisal+Abdulrahman+Mirza%2C+Shaykhah+Z%2E+Alsubaie%2C+Hassan+A%2E+Alahmed%2C+Ghadah+Alabduljab%2Dbar%2C)
10. Reem Bassiouney. 2020. Arabic Sociolinguistics: Topics in Diglossia, Gender, Identity, and Politics, Second Edition, 2 edition. Georgetown University Press. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Reem+Bassiouney%2E+2020%2E+Arabic+Sociolinguistics%3A+Topics+in+Diglossia%2C+Gender%2C+Identity%2C+and+Politics%2C+Second+Edition%2C+2+edition%2E+Georgetown+University+Press%2E)
11. Peter Behnstedt and Manfred Woidich. 2013. Arabic dialectology. In The Oxford Handbook of Arabic Linguistics. Oxford University Press. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Peter+Behnstedt+and+Manfred+Woidich%2E+2013%2E+Arabic+dialectology%2E+In+The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Arabic+Linguistics%2E+Oxford+University+Press%2E)
12. Houda Bouamor, Nizar Habash, Mohammad Salameh, Wajdi Zaghouani, Owen Rambow, Dana Abdulrahim, Ossama Obeid, Salam Khalifa, Fadhl Eryani, Alexander Erdmann, and Kemal Oflazer. 2018. The MADAR Arabic dialect corpus and lexicon. In Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2018), Miyazaki, Japan. European Language Resources Association (ELRA). [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Houda+Bouamor%2C+Nizar+Habash%2C+Mohammad+Salameh%2C+Wajdi+Zaghouani%2C+Owen+Rambow%2C+Dana+Abdulrahim%2C+Ossama+Obeid%2C+Salam+Khalifa%2C+Fadhl+Eryani%2C+Alexander+Erdmann%2C+and+Kemal+Oflazer%2E+2018%2E+The+MADAR+Arabic+di)
13. Team Cohere, Aakanksha, Arash Ahmadian, Marwan Ahmed, Jay Alammar, Yazeed Alnumay, Sophia Althammer, Arkady Arkhangorodsky, Viraat Aryabumi, Dennis Aumiller, Raphaël Avalos, Zahara Aviv, Sammie Bae, Saurabh Baji, Alexandre Barbet, Max Bartolo, Björn Bebensee, Neeral Beladia, Walter Beller-Morales, and 26 others. 2025. Command a: An enterprise-ready large language model. Preprint, arXiv:2504.00698. [↗](https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.00698)
14. Gheorghe Comanici, Eric Bieber, Mike Schaekermann, Ice Pasupat, Noveen Sachdeva, Inderjit Dhillon, Marcel Blistein, Ori Ram, Dan Zhang, Evan Rosen, Luke Marris, Sam Petulla, Colin Gaffney, Asaf Aharoni, Nathan Lintz, Tiago Cardal Pais, Henrik Jacobsson, Idan Szpektor, Nan-Jiang Jiang, and 3 others. 2025. [Gemini 2.5: Pushing the frontier with advanced reasoning, multimodality, long context, and next generation agentic capabilities](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/comanici-2025-gemini-2-5-pushing-frontier/). Preprint, arXiv:2507.06261. [↗](https://arxiv.org/abs/2507.06261)
15. John Dang, Shivalika Singh, Daniel D’souza, Arash Ahmadian, Alejandro Salamanca, Madeline Smith, Aidan Peppin, Sungjin Hong, Manoj Govindassamy, Terrence Zhao, Sandra Kublik, Meor Amer, Viraat Aryabumi, Jon Ander Campos, Yi-Chern Tan, Tom Kocmi, Florian Strub, Nathan Grinsztajn, Yannis Flet-Berliac, and 26 others. 2024. [Aya expanse: Combining research breakthroughs for a new multilingual frontier](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/dang-2024-aya-expanse-combining-research-breakthroughs/). Preprint, arXiv:2412.04261. [↗](https://arxiv.org/abs/2412.04261)
16. Amitava Das and Björn Gambäck. 2014. Identifying languages at the word level in code-mixed Indian social media text. In Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Natural Language Processing, pages 378–387, Goa, India. NLP Association of India. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Amitava+Das+and+Bj%C3%B6rn+Gamb%C3%A4ck%2E+2014%2E+Identifying+languages+at+the+word+level+in+code%2Dmixed+Indian+social+media+text%2E+In+Proceedings+of+the+11th+International+Conference+on+Natural+Language+Processing%2C)
17. Daniel Deutsch, Eleftheria Briakou, Isaac Rayburn Caswell, Mara Finkelstein, Rebecca Galor, Juraj Juraska, Geza Kovacs, Alison Lui, Ricardo Rei, Jason Riesa, Shruti Rijhwani, Parker Riley, Elizabeth Salesky, Firas Trabelsi, Stephanie Winkler, Biao Zhang, and Markus Freitag. 2025. [WMT24++: Expanding the language coverage of WMT24 to 55 languages & dialects](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/deutsch-2025-wmt24-expanding-language-coverage-wmt24/). In Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL 2025, pages 12257–12284, Vienna, Austria. Association for Computational Linguistics.
18. Abdellah El Mekki, Houdaifa Atou, Omer Nacar, Shady Shehata, and Muhammad Abdul-Mageed. 2025. NileChat: Towards linguistically diverse and culturally aware LLMs for local communities. In Proceedings of the 2025 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, pages 10967–10991, Suzhou, China. Association for Computational Linguistics. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Abdellah+El+Mekki%2C+Houdaifa+Atou%2C+Omer+Nacar%2C+Shady+Shehata%2C+and+Muhammad+Abdul%2DMageed%2E+2025%2E+NileChat%3A+Towards+linguistically+diverse+and+culturally+aware+LLMs+for+local+communities%2E+In+Proceedings+o)
19. Mostafa Elaraby, Ahmed Y. Tawfik, Mahmoud Khaled, Hany Hassan, and Aly Osama. 2018. Gender aware spoken language translation applied to english-arabic. In 2018 2nd International Conference on Natural Language and Speech Processing (ICNLSP), pages 1–6. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Mostafa+Elaraby%2C+Ahmed+Y%2E+Tawfik%2C+Mahmoud+Khaled%2C+Hany+Hassan%2C+and+Aly+Osama%2E+2018%2E+Gender+aware+spoken+language+translation+applied+to+english%2Darabic%2E+In+2018+2nd+International+Conference+on+Natural+)
20. Charles A. Ferguson. 1959. 15(2):325–340. Diglossia. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Charles+A%2E+Ferguson%2E+1959%2E+15%282%29%3A325%E2%80%93340%2E+Diglossia%2E)
21. WORD, Naman Goyal, Cynthia Gao, Vishrav Chaudhary, Peng-Jen Chen, Guillaume Wenzek, Da Ju, Sanjana Krishnan, Marc’Aurelio Ranzato, Francisco Guzmán, and Angela Fan. 2022. The Flores-101 evaluation benchmark for low-resource and multilingual machine translation. Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 10:522–538. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=WORD%2C+Naman+Goyal%2C+Cynthia+Gao%2C+Vishrav+Chaudhary%2C+Peng%2DJen+Chen%2C+Guillaume+Wenzek%2C+Da+Ju%2C+Sanjana+Krishnan%2C+Marc%E2%80%99Aurelio+Ranzato%2C+Francisco+Guzm%C3%A1n%2C+and+Angela+Fan%2E+2022%2E+The+Flores%2D101+evaluation+ben)
22. Aaron Grattafiori, Abhimanyu Dubey, Abhinav Jauhri, Abhinav Pandey, Abhishek Kadian, Ahmad Al-Dahle, Aiesha Letman, Akhil Mathur, Alan Schelten, Alex Vaughan, Amy Yang, Angela Fan, Anirudh Goyal, Anthony Hartshorn, Aobo Yang, Archi Mitra, Archie Sravankumar, Artem Korenev, Arthur Hinsvark, and 8 others. 2024. [The llama 3 herd of models](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/grattafiori-2024-llama-3-herd-models/). Preprint, arXiv:2407.21783. [↗](https://arxiv.org/abs/2407.21783)
23. Kilem Li Gwet. 2008. Computing inter-rater reliability and its variance in the presence of high agreement. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 61(1):29–48. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Kilem+Li+Gwet%2E+2008%2E+Computing+inter%2Drater+reliability+and+its+variance+in+the+presence+of+high+agreement%2E+British+Journal+of+Mathematical+and+Statistical+Psychology%2C+61%281%29%3A29%E2%80%9348%2E)
24. Salima Harrat, Karima Meftouh, and Kamel Smaili. 2019. Machine translation for arabic dialects (survey). Information Processing & Management, 56(2):262–273. Advance Arabic Natural Language Processing (ANLP) and its Applications. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Salima+Harrat%2C+Karima+Meftouh%2C+and+Kamel+Smaili%2E+2019%2E+Machine+translation+for+arabic+dialects+%28survey%29%2E+Information+Processing+%26+Management%2C+56%282%29%3A262%E2%80%93273%2E+Advance+Arabic+Natural+Language+Processing+)
25. Karima Kadaoui, Samar M. Magdy, Abdul Waheed, Md Tawkat Islam Khondaker, Ahmed Oumar El-Shangiti, El Moatez Billah Nagoudi, and Muhammad Abdul-Mageed. 2023. [TARJAMAT: Evaluation of bard and ChatGPT on machine translation of ten Arabic varieties](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/kadaoui-2023-tarjamat-evaluation-bard-chatgpt-machine/). In Proceedings of ArabicNLP 2023, pages 52–75, Singapore (Hybrid). Association for Computational Linguistics.
26. Tom Kocmi, Arkady Arkhangorodsky, Alexandre Berard, Phil Blunsom, Samuel Cahyawijaya, Théo Dehaze, Marzieh Fadaee, Nicholas Frosst, Matthias Galle, Aidan Gomez, Nithya Govindarajan, Wei-Yin Ko, Julia Kreutzer, Kelly Marchisio, Ahmet Üstün, Sebastian Vincent, and Ivan Zhang. 2025. Command-a-translate: Raising the bar of machine translation with difficulty filtering. In Proceedings of the Tenth Conference on Machine Translation, pages 789–799, Suzhou, China. Association for Computational Linguistics. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Tom+Kocmi%2C+Arkady+Arkhangorodsky%2C+Alexandre+Berard%2C+Phil+Blunsom%2C+Samuel+Cahyawijaya%2C+Th%C3%A9o+Dehaze%2C+Marzieh+Fadaee%2C+Nicholas+Frosst%2C+Matthias+Galle%2C+Aidan+Gomez%2C+Nithya+Govindarajan%2C+Wei%2DYin+Ko%2C+Julia+)
27. Sanad Malaysha, Mo El-Haj, Saad Ezzini, Mohammed Khalilia, Mustafa Jarrar, Sultan Almujaiwel, Ismail Berrada, and Houda Bouamor. 2024. [AraFinNLP 2024: The first Arabic financial NLP shared task](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/malaysha-2024-arafinnlp-2024-first-arabic-financial/). In Proceedings of the Second Arabic Natural Language Processing Conference, pages 393–402, Bangkok, Thailand. Association for Computational Linguistics.
28. Karima Meftouh, Salima Harrat, Salma Jamoussi, Mourad Abbas, and Kamel Smaili. 2015. [Machine translation experiments on PADIC: A parallel Arabic DIalect corpus](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/meftouh-2015-machine-translation-experiments-padic-parallel/). In Proceedings of the 29th Pacific Asia Conference on Language, Information and Computation, pages 26–34, Shanghai, China. Basel Mousi, Nadir Durrani, Fatema Ahmad, Md.
29. Arid Hasan, Maram Hasanain, Tameem Kabbani, Fahim Dalvi, Shammur Absar Chowdhury, and Firoj Alam. 2025. [AraDiCE: Benchmarks for dialectal and cultural capabilities in LLMs](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/mousi-2025-aradice-benchmarks-dialectal-cultural-capabilities/). In Proceedings of the 31st International Conference on Computational Linguistics, pages 4186–4218, Abu Dhabi, UAE. Association for Computational Linguistics.
30. El Moatez Billah Nagoudi, AbdelRahim Elmadany, and Muhammad Abdul-Mageed. 2022. [TURJUMAN: A public toolkit for neural Arabic machine translation](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/nagoudi-2022-turjuman-public-toolkit-neural-arabic/). In Proceedinsg of the 5th Workshop on Open-Source Arabic Corpora and Processing Tools with Shared Tasks on Qur’an QA and Fine-Grained Hate Speech Detection, pages 1–11, Marseille, France. European Language Resources Association.
31. OpenAI, :, Sandhini Agarwal, Lama Ahmad, Jason Ai, Sam Altman, Andy Applebaum, Edwin Arbus, Rahul K. Arora, Yu Bai, Bowen Baker, Haiming Bao, Boaz Barak, Ally Bennett, Tyler Bertao, Nivedita Brett, Eugene Brevdo, Greg Brockman, Sebastien Bubeck, and 9 others. 2025. [gpt-oss-120b & gpt-oss-20b model card](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/agarwal-2025-gpt-oss-120b-gpt-oss/). Preprint, arXiv:2508.10925. [↗](https://arxiv.org/abs/2508.10925)
32. Maja Popović. 2017. [chrF++: words helping character n-grams](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/popovic-2017-chrf-words-helping-character-n/). In Proceedings of the Second Conference on Machine Translation, pages 612–618, Copenhagen, Denmark. Association for Computational Linguistics. [↗](https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/w17-4770)
33. Ricardo Rei, Craig Stewart, Ana C Farinha, and Alon Lavie. 2020. [COMET: A neural framework for MT evaluation](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/rei-2020-comet-neural-framework-mt-evaluation/). In Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP), pages 2685–2702, Online. Association for Computational Linguistics.
34. Hassan Sajjad, Ahmed Abdelali, Nadir Durrani, and Fahim Dalvi. 2020. AraBench: Benchmarking dialectal Arabic-English machine translation. In Proceedings of the 28th International Conference on Computational Linguistics, pages 5094–5107, Barcelona, Spain (Online). International Committee on Computational Linguistics. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Hassan+Sajjad%2C+Ahmed+Abdelali%2C+Nadir+Durrani%2C+and+Fahim+Dalvi%2E+2020%2E+AraBench%3A+Benchmarking+dialectal+Arabic%2DEnglish+machine+translation%2E+In+Proceedings+of+the+28th+International+Conference+on+Computa)
35. Chihiro Taguchi, Seng Mai, Keita Kurabe, Yusuke Sakai, Georgina Agyei, Soudabeh Eslami, and David Chiang. 2025. Languages still left behind: Toward a better multilingual machine translation benchmark. In Proceedings of the 2025 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, pages 20142–20154, Suzhou, China. Association for Computational Linguistics. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Chihiro+Taguchi%2C+Seng+Mai%2C+Keita+Kurabe%2C+Yusuke+Sakai%2C+Georgina+Agyei%2C+Soudabeh+Eslami%2C+and+David+Chiang%2E+2025%2E+Languages+still+left+behind%3A+Toward+a+better+multilingual+machine+translation+benchmark%2E)
36. Fanar Team, Ummar Abbas, Mohammad Shahmeer Ahmad, Firoj Alam, Enes Altinisik, Ehsannedin Asgari, Yazan Boshmaf, Sabri Boughorbel, Sanjay Chawla, Shammur Chowdhury, Fahim Dalvi, Kareem Darwish, Nadir Durrani, Mohamed Elfeky, Ahmed Elmagarmid, Mohamed Eltabakh, Masoomali Fatehkia, Anastasios Fragkopoulos, Maram Hasanain, and 23 others. 2025. [Fanar: An arabic-centric multimodal generative ai platform](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/abbas-2025-fanar-arabic-centric-multimodal-generative/). Preprint, arXiv:2501.13944. [↗](https://arxiv.org/abs/2501.13944)
37. NLLB Team, Marta R. Costa-jussà, James Cross, Onur Çelebi, Maha Elbayad, Kenneth Heafield, Kevin Heffernan, Elahe Kalbassi, Janice Lam, Daniel Licht, Jean Maillard, Anna Sun, Skyler Wang, Guillaume Wenzek, Al Youngblood, Bapi Akula, Loic Barrault, Gabriel Mejia Gonzalez, Prangthip Hansanti, and 20 others. 2022. No language left behind: Scaling human-centered machine translation. Preprint, arXiv:2207.04672. [↗](https://arxiv.org/abs/2207.04672)
38. Jörg Tiedemann and Santhosh Thottingal. 2020. OPUS-MT – building open translation services for the world. In Proceedings of the 22nd Annual Conference of the European Association for Machine Translation, pages 479–480, Lisboa, Portugal. European Association for Machine Translation. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=J%C3%B6rg+Tiedemann+and+Santhosh+Thottingal%2E+2020%2E+OPUS%2DMT+%E2%80%93+building+open+translation+services+for+the+world%2E+In+Proceedings+of+the+22nd+Annual+Conference+of+the+European+Association+for+Machine+Translati)
39. Ashish Vaswani, Noam Shazeer, Niki Parmar, Jakob Uszkoreit, Llion Jones, Aidan N Gomez, Lukasz Kaiser, and Illia Polosukhin. 2017. [Attention is all you need](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/vaswani-2017-attention-all-need/). In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, volume 30. Curran Associates, Inc.
40. An Yang, Anfeng Li, Baosong Yang, Beichen Zhang, Binyuan Hui, Bo Zheng, Bowen Yu, Chang Gao, Chengen Huang, Chenxu Lv, Chujie Zheng, Dayiheng Liu, Fan Zhou, Fei Huang, Feng Hu, Hao Ge, Haoran Wei, Huan Lin, Jialong Tang, and 41 others. 2025. [Qwen3 technical report](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/yang-2025-qwen3-technical-report/). Preprint, arXiv:2505.09388. [↗](https://arxiv.org/abs/2505.09388)
41. Rabih Zbib, Erika Malchiodi, Jacob Devlin, David Stallard, Spyros Matsoukas, Richard Schwartz, John Makhoul, Omar F. Zaidan, and Chris Callison-Burch. 2012. [Machine translation of Arabic dialects](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/zbib-2012-machine-translation-arabic-dialects/). In Proceedings of the 2012 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, pages 49–59, Montréal, Canada. Association for Computational Linguistics. 11 The model used is all-MiniLM-L6-v2, Available at [https://huggingface.co/sentence-transformers/](https://huggingface.co/sentence-transformers/) all-MiniLM-L6-v2. energy comm logistics health agri Figure A.1: t-SNE projection of generated English conversations, shown for the Moroccan context as a representative example. Conversations are grouped by domain using source embeddings from our two-phase pipeline; these trends are consistent across the other countries. agri 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.0 2.6 0.4 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 2.0 0.0 comm 0.2 0.0 2.5 0.0 2.6 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.1 3.4 0.2 const 0.3 0.0 2.1 0.0 4.7 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.2 2.6 0.2 edu 0.6 0.2 3.7 0.0 2.4 1.6 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 4.8 0.0 energy 0.8 0.3 1.4 0.2 6.0 0.5 0.8 0.9 0.5 0.9 0.0 3.0 0.5 health 0.1 0.4 1.6 0.2 2.9 0.8 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.0 2.6 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 2.3 0.0 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.0 3.8 0.1 pro 1.5 0.8 2.2 0.1 4.7 1.1 0.2 0.2 0.6 1.6 0.3 5.2 0.0 social 0.2 0.6 0.7 0.0 1.4 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.6 0.0 2.2 0.0 tourism 1.0 0.3 1.4 0.1 2.9 1.0 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.1 0.1 2.0 0.0 [↗](https://huggingface.co/sentence-transformers/)

*Updated 2 November 2026*