---
title: "Character-to-Character Sentiment Analysis in Shakespeare's Plays"
description: "The paper asks whether a computer can follow how characters in a narrative feel about one another… 19 references, cited by 17 papers here."
authors: ["Eric T. Nalisnick", "Henry S. Baird"]
year: 2013
venue: "Proceedings of the 51st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 2: Short Papers)"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/P13-2085/"
licence: "CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (ACL Anthology, before 2016)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/nalisnick-2013-character-character-sentiment-analysis-shakespeare/"
---
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# Character-to-Character Sentiment Analysis in Shakespeare's Plays

**Authors:** Eric T. Nalisnick and Henry S. Baird · **Year:** 2013 · **Venue:** [Proceedings of the 51st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 2: Short Papers)](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/acl/) ([ACL 2013](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/acl/2013/)) · **Publisher:** [Association for Computational Linguistics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/association-for-computational-linguistics/) · **Licence:** [CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (ACL Anthology, before 2016)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/P13-2085/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/P13-2085.pdf) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W2101860453)

**Citations:** 40 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · [17](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/nalisnick-2013-character-character-sentiment-analysis-shakespeare/cited-by/) in our library, of the 149,439 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
The paper asks whether a computer can follow how characters in a narrative feel about one another, not just the mood of a whole text or of one character. Nalisnick and Baird use the explicit dialogue structure of plays, working from Jon Bosak's XML editions of Shakespeare. Their method is deliberately shallow and has no domain tuning. Each uninterrupted speech gets a score equal to the sum of the AFINN lexicon valences of its words. That score is then credited to the relationship between the speaker and whoever spoke just before. Adding these scores gives static rankings of each character's allies and enemies. Tracking the running total across line numbers gives dynamic curves for any pair of characters. For Hamlet, Othello, Romeo and Juliet, and The Taming of the Shrew, the curves mostly agree with standard readings of the plays. In one case they drew attention to a turning-point scene. The evaluation is qualitative only. Its value lies in showing that a crude lexicon combined with a structural guess about the addressee already yields interpretable relationship dynamics.

## Key points
- **Method:** Valence comes from the AFINN lexicon (Nielsen, 2011) and is summed over each continuous speech. The result is credited to the preceding speaker, who is treated as the addressee.
- **Hamlet's final rankings:** Claudius scores lowest at −27, while Gertrude scores a surprisingly high +24.
- **Act III Scene IV ("The Queen's Closet", near line 2,250):** In this scene, Hamlet's running score toward Gertrude rises from −1 to 22. In the same scene, Gertrude's score toward Hamlet falls from 1 to −19.
- **Other relationships analysed:**
  - Othello→Desdemona peaks early and then collapses.
  - Romeo and Juliet are strongly positive toward each other.
  - Petruchio is negative toward Katharina during roughly lines 1200–1700, his "taming" phase.
  - An interactive viewer called ShakespeareExplorer covers every pair of characters in every play.
- **Known failures and future work:**
  - Sentiment about characters who are not on stage gets misattributed to whoever spoke last.
  - Iago's flattery hides his hatred of Othello.
  - The authors propose detecting references to offstage characters and handling irony and deceit.
  - For novels, they propose first running Elson and McKeown's speaker attribution.

## Interesting ideas
- Credit a speech's sentiment to a directed speaker→addressee pair rather than to the text as a whole, turning a polarity score into an edge in a relationship graph.
- Use a cheap structural default for the addressee (the previous speaker) and record where that default fails, such as offstage targets, as a separate repair problem.
- Follow a cumulative score over the course of the text and treat sudden jumps as markers of pivotal scenes.
- Name the cases a shallow signal cannot see, such as deceptive flattery, as a known weakness instead of hiding them.
- Judge the output against well-known reader interpretations of famous works when no gold labels exist.

## For Mova

How these ideas could serve Mova, our small open language model — its files, stages and tests:

- **I1** (frames): Speech-act frames in prag could carry an explicit addressee slot filled from turn order, so attitude becomes a who-feels-what-toward-whom relation.
- **I2** (frames): Coreference could take "previous turn-holder" as a weak prior for second-person reference, overridden when a mention points to someone absent.
- **I3** (world): Timestamped attitude states on entity pairs would let the world model flag events where a relation flips, and those events can serve as explainable hooks for questions about why something changed.
- **I4** (learn): Iago-style deceptive praise makes a good negative control, where surface polarity and true attitude diverge, for testing whether the irony and implicature layers add value.
- **I5** (answer): Fables and tales with canonical moral readings, such as who is the villain, could serve as a sanity-check set for relationship questions answered from the world graph.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

## Institutions

- [Lehigh University](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/lehigh-university/) — University, Bethlehem, United States · 10 works · 1,573 citations

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🧭 Topics (1): [😊 Sentiment & emotion](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/sentiment-emotion/) · 1,035 works

## Cite

Cite as: Eric T. Nalisnick and Henry S. Baird. 2013. Character-to-Character Sentiment Analysis in Shakespeare's Plays. Proceedings of the 51st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 2: Short Papers).

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{nalisnick2013character,
  title = {{Character-to-Character Sentiment Analysis in Shakespeare's Plays}},
  author = {Eric T. Nalisnick and Henry S. Baird},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 51st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 2: Short Papers)},
  year = {2013},
  url = {https://aclanthology.org/P13-2085/}
}
```

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## References

19 references, 3 of them with a card of ours. ↗ leads to the work, «find» searches for one we have no id for yet.

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*Updated 2 November 2026*