---
title: "Push and Pull — Nooten 2026"
description: "Distance-based classification (DBC) decides whether a label fits a text by comparing their embeddings with cosine similarity."
authors: ["Jens Van Nooten", "Andriy Kosar"]
year: 2026
venue: "Proceedings of the Fifteenth Language Resources and Evaluation Conference"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/2026.lrec-1.583/"
doi: "10.63317/4fiaod5mcdsr"
licence: "CC BY-NC 4.0 (ELRA, LREC proceedings)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/nooten-2026-push-pull-training-sentence-encoders/"
---
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# Push and Pull: Training Sentence Encoders with Contrastive Losses for Distance-Based Multi-Label Text Classification

**Authors:** Jens Van Nooten, Andriy Kosar · **Year:** 2026 · **Venue:** Proceedings of the Fifteenth Language Resources and Evaluation Conference · **Licence:** [CC BY-NC 4.0 (ELRA, LREC proceedings)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/2026.lrec-1.583/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/2026.lrec-1.583.pdf) · [DOI 10.63317/4fiaod5mcdsr](https://doi.org/10.63317/4fiaod5mcdsr) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W7160077746)

**Citations:** 0 citations (openalex-snapshot · 2026-10-14)

## Summary
Distance-based classification (DBC) decides whether a label fits a text by comparing their embeddings with cosine similarity. This makes it cheap and easy to extend to new labels. However, it is rarely used for multi-label text classification (MLTC), where several labels per text require similarity thresholds. Earlier work introduced label-specific thresholds. The authors build on it by fine-tuning sentence encoders with supervised contrastive objectives, which pull a text toward its correct label embeddings and push it away from wrong ones. They compare three such losses on three English encoders (Stella, GIST-Large, BGE) and one Dutch encoder (BERTje-nli). The datasets are SemEval, BioTech, Reuters, AAPD, LitCovid and two label levels of the Dutch EventDNA corpus. To mimic scarce annotation, only the validation splits are used for training. Contrastive fine-tuning beats the untuned encoders on every dataset. The resulting models come close to, or match, fine-tuned BERT-style classifiers and zero-/few-shot LLMs. This matters for teams that need lightweight, adaptable multi-label classifiers with little labelled data, including for languages other than English.

## Key points
- Three losses are compared: Label Margin Loss (L_LM), L_TM, and a pairwise margin loss L_P. GLMM significance tests (Holm-Bonferroni corrected) show that all three beat the base encoders. L_P is significantly better than the other two in every dataset–model combination tested.
- On LitCovid, L_P raises Stella's micro-F1 from 61.68 to 88.01. This is roughly on par with RoBERTa (88.20) and far above Qwen3:14b (66.31).
- On SemEval, L_P raises Stella's micro-F1 from 48.96 to 66.83 and its macro-F1 from 41.20 to 57.20. The macro-F1 exceeds both Qwen3:14b (48.97) and RoBERTa (53.83).
- All encoders have under 1B parameters (Stella 435M, GIST-Large 335M, BGE 109M, BERTje-nli 110M) and fit on a single 11GB RTX 2080 Ti.
- Data preparation:
  - AAPD, LitCovid and EventDNA received stratified splits.
  - AAPD abbreviations were mapped to descriptive arXiv category names.
  - EventDNA labels were translated into Dutch; its bottom level has 494 labels.
  - The code is released at github.com/clips/push_and_pull.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

Fields: [Linguistics & languages](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/linguistics/)

## Cite

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{nooten2026push,
  title = {{Push and Pull: Training Sentence Encoders with Contrastive Losses for Distance-Based Multi-Label Text Classification}},
  author = {Nooten, Jens Van and Kosar, Andriy},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the Fifteenth Language Resources and Evaluation Conference},
  year = {2026},
  doi = {10.63317/4fiaod5mcdsr},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.63317/4fiaod5mcdsr}
}
```

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