---
title: "Seeing Stars — Pang 2005"
description: "Earlier sentiment classification work mostly separated positive from negative reviews."
authors: ["Bo Pang", "Lillian Lee"]
year: 2005
venue: "Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL'05)"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/P05-1015/"
doi: "10.3115/1219840.1219855"
licence: "CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (ACL Anthology, before 2016)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/pang-2005-seeing-stars-exploiting-class-relationships/"
---
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# Seeing Stars: Exploiting Class Relationships for Sentiment Categorization with Respect to Rating Scales

**Authors:** [Bo Pang](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/bo-pang/), [Lillian Lee](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/lillian-lee/) · **Year:** 2005 · **Venue:** Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL'05) · **Licence:** [CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (ACL Anthology, before 2016)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/P05-1015/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/P05-1015.pdf) · [DOI 10.3115/1219840.1219855](https://doi.org/10.3115/1219840.1219855) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W2163455955)

**Citations:** 2129 citations (openalex-snapshot · 2026-10-14) · [593](#cited-by) in our library, of the 140884 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
Earlier sentiment classification work mostly separated positive from negative reviews. This paper addresses rating inference: predicting where a review falls on a multi-point scale such as star ratings. In this setting, labels are ordered, and some labels are closer to each other than others. The authors first ran a small study in which two human judges compared pairs of reviews by the same critic. People reliably spotted large rating gaps but became less accurate as the gap shrank. This motivated a three-class version and a four-class version of the task. The authors then released the scale dataset v1.0, built from movie reviews by four individual critics, with explicit rating markers and objective sentences stripped out. They compared three SVM-based approaches: one-vs-all, ε-insensitive regression, and a metric-labeling meta-algorithm. The meta-algorithm adjusts a base classifier's output so that similar documents end up with nearby labels. When paired with a new item similarity based on the share of positive sentences, metric labeling often beat both SVM baselines significantly. The study shows that using label distances together with a task-specific similarity measure helps fine-grained ordinal text classification.

## Key points
- **Human pilot study (Table 1):**
  - Both judges were perfect when two reviews differed by 3 or more "notches." A notch is a half star on a 4–5 star scale, or 10 points on a 100-point scale.
  - At a one-notch difference, pooled accuracy fell to 55%. This is still well above the 33% random baseline, though the two judges differed considerably.
- **Corpora:** The scale dataset v1.0 contains four single-author movie-review corpora with 1770, 902, 1307 and 1027 documents. Single-author corpora sidestep differences in how critics calibrate their scales.
- **Label schemes:**
  - The three-class scheme is negative / middling / positive.
  - The four-class scheme came from a five-class one. In each corpus, one extreme class held only about 5% of the documents, so it was merged into its neighbouring class.
- **Shared base learner:** All methods use SVMs from Joachims' SVMlight package, which keeps the comparisons fair.
  - One-vs-all uses no label relations.
  - Regression uses them implicitly.
  - Metric labeling (following Kleinberg and Tardos) encodes them explicitly through a distance metric on labels.
- **Main finding:** The metric-labeling approach was strongest when combined with the positive-sentence-percentage similarity. The results partly carried over to mixed-author data.

## Interesting ideas
- **Relative judgments for human studies:** Ask annotators which of two texts is more positive instead of asking for absolute scores. Varying the true rating gap between pairs lets one experiment test several scale granularities at once. This is a cheap way to decide how fine-grained a labeling scheme can realistically be before annotating a new corpus.
- **Classifier-agnostic post-processing:** Treat a classifier's per-label scores as input to an optimization that also rewards giving nearby labels to similar items. Because it wraps an existing model, the trick could be reused for any ordinal target, such as reading level, urgency or quality grades.
- **Label metrics for non-scale categories:** The authors suggest encoding structure among classes as distances. For example, neutral can be placed closer to both positive and negative than those two are to each other, and hierarchical label sets can be expressed the same way. This is useful when classes are not a clean scale but are not unrelated either.
- **Task-specific item similarity:** Rather than relying on generic word overlap, the authors defined document similarity through a sentiment-relevant property (the proportion of positive sentences). Choosing a similarity measure that reflects the target dimension can matter more than the learning algorithm itself.
- **Controlling annotator calibration:** Keeping each corpus to a single author removes noise from differing personal rating scales. Collecting a few labeled samples from each new author is a practical way to handle calibration in real systems.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

Fields: [Natural language processing](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/nlp/)

## Cited by

Cited by

593 papers of our library cite it (of the 140884 whose bibliographies we read); 52 of them have a page here, 541 not yet.

- [Muppet: Massive Multi-task Representations with Pre-Finetuning](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/aghajanyan-2021-muppet-massive-multi-task-representations/)
- [Layer Normalization](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/ba-2016-layer-normalization/)
- [Biographies, Bollywood, Boom-boxes and Blenders: Domain Adaptation for Sentiment Classification](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/blitzer-2007-biographies-bollywood-boom-boxes-blenders/)
- [An Unsupervised Aspect-Sentiment Model for Online Reviews](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/brody-2010-unsupervised-aspect-sentiment-model-online/)
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## Cite

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{pang2005seeing,
  title = {{Seeing Stars: Exploiting Class Relationships for Sentiment Categorization with Respect to Rating Scales}},
  author = {Pang, Bo and Lee, Lillian},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL'05)},
  year = {2005},
  doi = {10.3115/1219840.1219855},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.3115/1219840.1219855}
}
```

- [← previous Representing Discourse Coherence: A Corpus-Based Study](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/wolf-2005-representing-discourse-coherence-corpus-based/)
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- [↑ back to papers of 2005](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/2005/)

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