---
title: "Language Modeling for Code-Mixing — Pratapa 2018"
description: "Code-mixed (CM) text is hard to model because real mixed data is scarce and switch points are rare even inside CM corpora."
authors: ["Adithya Pratapa", "Gayatri Bhat", "Monojit Choudhury", "Sunayana Sitaram", "Sandipan Dandapat", "Kalika Bali"]
year: 2018
venue: "Proceedings of the 56th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/P18-1143/"
doi: "10.18653/v1/p18-1143"
licence: "CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/pratapa-2018-language-modeling-code-mixing-role/"
---
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# Language Modeling for Code-Mixing: The Role of Linguistic Theory based Synthetic Data

**Authors:** Adithya Pratapa, Gayatri Bhat, [Monojit Choudhury](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/monojit-choudhury/), [Sunayana Sitaram](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/sunayana-sitaram/), [Sandipan Dandapat](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/sandipan-dandapat/), [Kalika Bali](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/kalika-bali/) · **Year:** 2018 · **Venue:** Proceedings of the 56th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) · **Licence:** [CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/P18-1143/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/P18-1143.pdf) · [DOI 10.18653/v1/p18-1143](https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/p18-1143) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W2798348125)

**Citations:** 121 citations (openalex-snapshot · 2026-10-14) · [81](#cited-by) in our library, of the 140884 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
Code-mixed (CM) text is hard to model because real mixed data is scarce and switch points are rare even inside CM corpora. The authors address this by creating artificial CM sentences under the Equivalence Constraint (EC) theory of Poplack and Sankoff. Their generator takes English–Spanish parallel sentences with word alignments and parses the English side with the Stanford Parser. It then projects that tree onto the Spanish sentence, collapsing subtrees whose structures disagree. Finally, it enumerates mixed variants whose switch points satisfy the EC. The resulting generated CM data (gCM) is combined with monolingual data (Mono) and a small amount of real CM data (rCM) to train an RNN language model. The authors vary both how gCM is sampled, for example to match the real switch-point distribution or by CMI, and the training curriculum. With appropriate sampling and ordering, the synthetic data lowers perplexity about as much as doubling the real CM data. Random mixing gives no benefit. This makes theory-driven augmentation a practical answer to CM data scarcity, and it indirectly supports the linguistic theory behind it.

## Key points
- The language pair is English–Spanish. Spanish parse trees are obtained by projecting Stanford Parser output through word alignments, and a single sentence pair can yield up to thousands of EC-valid variants.
- A baseline using only Mono and rCM (model 3) needs about twice as much rCM to equal the gCM-augmented model 5(b)-ρ. The advantage from gCM fades only around 50K rCM sentences.
- In a control experiment, gCM was replaced by randomly spliced monolingual segments matching the rCM switch-point distribution. This produced a perplexity of 1060 on Test-17, worse than the baseline.
- Switch points remain the hardest part to model. Even the best model, 5(a)-χ, has perplexity about four times higher at switch points than over the whole test set. Short embedded-language runs (length 1) are also especially difficult.
- The default number of sampled gCM variants per sentence pair was k = 5. Raising k to 10 (tested alongside 1 and 2) does not reliably reduce perplexity further.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

Fields: [Natural language processing](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/nlp/)

## Cited by

Cited by

81 papers of our library cite it (of the 140884 whose bibliographies we read); 2 of them have a page here, 79 not yet.

- [Corpus Creation for Sentiment Analysis in Code-Mixed Tamil-English Text](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/chakravarthi-2020-corpus-creation-sentiment-analysis-code/)
- [GLUECoS: An Evaluation Benchmark for Code-Switched NLP](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/khanuja-2020-gluecos-evaluation-benchmark-code-switched/)

## Cite

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{pratapa2018language,
  title = {{Language Modeling for Code-Mixing: The Role of Linguistic Theory based Synthetic Data}},
  author = {Pratapa, Adithya and Bhat, Gayatri and Choudhury, Monojit and Sitaram, Sunayana and Dandapat, Sandipan and Bali, Kalika},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 56th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)},
  year = {2018},
  doi = {10.18653/v1/p18-1143},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/p18-1143}
}
```

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