--- title: "Using Information Content to Evaluate Semantic — Resnik 1995" description: "The paper addresses how to estimate semantic similarity between concepts in an IS-A taxonomy." authors: ["Philip Resnik"] year: 1995 venue: "IJCAI-95" source: "https://www.ijcai.org/Proceedings/95-1/" arxiv: "cmp-lg/9511007" licence: "All rights reserved — free to read at the source" summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License" canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/resnik-1995-information-content-evaluate-semantic-similarity/" --- [Elamur Research](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/) · [this page in HTML](https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/resnik-1995-information-content-evaluate-semantic-similarity/) [home](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/) / [papers](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/) / [1995](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/1995/) / Using Information Content to Evaluate Semantic Similarity in a Taxonomy # Using Information Content to Evaluate Semantic Similarity in a Taxonomy **Authors:** [Philip Resnik](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/philip-resnik/) · **Year:** 1995 · **Venue:** IJCAI-95 · **Licence:** All rights reserved — free to read at the source **Links:** [Publisher's page](https://www.ijcai.org/Proceedings/95-1/) · [PDF](https://www.ijcai.org/Proceedings/95-1/Papers/059.pdf) · [arXiv cmp-lg/9511007](https://arxiv.org/abs/cmp-lg/9511007) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W2117805756) **Citations:** 3193 citations (openalex-snapshot · 2026-10-14) · [226](#cited-by) in our library, of the 140884 papers whose bibliographies we read ## Summary The paper addresses how to estimate semantic similarity between concepts in an IS-A taxonomy. The standard edge-counting approach treats every link as an equal distance, but real hierarchies such as WordNet vary widely in how much meaning a single link spans. Resnik's alternative attaches corpus-derived probabilities to taxonomy nodes. A concept's information content is defined as its negative log probability. Two concepts are then scored by the information content of the most informative concept that subsumes both. For words, the maximum is taken over all sense pairs. Concept frequencies come from noun counts in the Brown Corpus, propagated upward through the WordNet noun hierarchy. Evaluation compares system scores with the Miller and Charles human ratings. The information-content measure clearly outperforms edge counting and comes reasonably close to inter-human agreement. The work matters for two reasons. It gives a simple measure that is robust to uneven link density. It also shows that a fixed knowledge resource can be adapted to different domains through corpus statistics. ## Key points - **Resources:** WordNet's noun taxonomy (about 50,000 nodes) and the Brown Corpus (about 1 million words). Each noun occurrence counts toward every class that contains it, and probabilities are relative frequencies. - **Benchmark:** Miller and Charles (1991) collected ratings for 30 noun pairs from 38 subjects on a 0–4 scale. Resnik's replication with 10 subjects correlated at .96 with the original means. - **Human upper bound:** the average per-subject correlation was r = 0.8848 over 30 pairs and r = 0.9015 over the 28 pairs scorable in WordNet (one noun is missing). - **Main result:** information content reached r = 0.79, against r = 0.66 for edge counting. A plain-probability variant was also compared. - **Weakness:** maximizing over senses can produce spurious matches. For example, *horse* scores as similar to *tobacco* through a slang sense meaning heroin, which places both words under narcotics. *Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.* Fields: [AI & machine learning](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/ai/) ## Cited by Cited by 226 papers of our library cite it (of the 140884 whose bibliographies we read); 11 of them have a page here, 215 not yet. - [A Study on Similarity and Relatedness Using Distributional and WordNet-based Approaches](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/agirre-2009-study-similarity-relatedness-distributional-wordnet/) - [SemEval-2016 Task 1: Semantic Textual Similarity, Monolingual and Cross-Lingual Evaluation](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/agirre-2016-semeval-2016-task-1-semantic/) - [Detecting Subevent Structure for Event Coreference Resolution](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/araki-2014-detecting-subevent-structure-event-coreference/) - [Concept-Map-Based Multi-Document Summarization using Concept Coreference Resolution and Global Importance Optimization](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/falke-2017-concept-map-based-multi-document/) - [SimLex-999: Evaluating Semantic Models With (Genuine) Similarity Estimation](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/hill-2015-simlex-999-evaluating-semantic-models/) - [Learning to Solve Arithmetic Word Problems with Verb Categorization](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/hosseini-2014-learning-solve-arithmetic-word-problems/) - [Introduction to the Special Issue on Word Sense Disambiguation: The State of the Art](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/ide-1998-introduction-special-issue-word-sense/) - [Automatic Evaluation of Topic Coherence](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/newman-2010-automatic-evaluation-topic-coherence/) - [Exploiting Semantic Role Labeling, WordNet and Wikipedia for Coreference Resolution](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/ponzetto-2006-exploiting-semantic-role-labeling-wordnet/) - [Beyond the Imitation Game: Quantifying and extrapolating the capabilities of language models](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/srivastava-2022-imitation-game-quantifying-extrapolating-capabilities/) - [Similarity of Semantic Relations](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/turney-2006-similarity-semantic-relations/) ## Cite The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work. ```bibtex @inproceedings{resnik1995using, title = {{Using Information Content to Evaluate Semantic Similarity in a Taxonomy}}, author = {Resnik, Philip}, booktitle = {IJCAI-95}, year = {1995}, eprint = {cmp-lg/9511007}, archivePrefix = {arXiv}, url = {https://arxiv.org/abs/cmp-lg/9511007} } ``` - [← previous Unsupervised Word Sense Disambiguation Rivaling Supervised Methods](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/yarowsky-1995-unsupervised-word-sense-disambiguation-rivaling/) - [next → Utilizing Statistical Dialogue Act Processing in Verbmobil](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/reithinger-1995-utilizing-statistical-dialogue-act-processing/) - [↑ back to papers of 1995](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/1995/) ## References 19 references, 0 of them with a card of ours. ↗ leads to the work, «find» searches for one we have no id for yet. 1. A. Collins and E. Loftus. 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