---
title: "Learning to select data for transfer learning with Bayesian"
description: "NLP models lose accuracy when test data come from a domain unlike their training data. 53 references, cited by 67 papers here."
authors: ["Sebastian Ruder", "Barbara Plank"]
year: 2017
venue: "Proceedings of the 2017 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/D17-1038/"
doi: "10.18653/v1/d17-1038"
licence: "CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/ruder-2017-learning-select-data-transfer-learning/"
---
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# Learning to select data for transfer learning with Bayesian Optimization

**Authors:** [Sebastian Ruder](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/sebastian-ruder/) and [Barbara Plank](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/barbara-plank/) · **Year:** 2017 · **Venue:** [Proceedings of the 2017 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/emnlp/) ([EMNLP 2017](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/emnlp/2017/)) · **Publisher:** [Association for Computational Linguistics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/association-for-computational-linguistics/) · **Licence:** [CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/D17-1038/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/D17-1038.pdf) · [DOI 10.18653/v1/d17-1038](https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/d17-1038) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W2736422900)

**Citations:** 29 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · [67](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/ruder-2017-learning-select-data-transfer-learning/cited-by/) in our library, of the 141,840 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
NLP models lose accuracy when test data come from a domain unlike their training data. When several source domains are available, it matters which training examples are used. Earlier data selection work relied on one hand-picked similarity metric, usually studied for a single task. Ruder and Plank instead learn the selection measure. Each source example receives a score from a weighted linear combination of features:
- **Similarity features:** Jensen-Shannon, Rényi, cosine and others, computed over term, topic and embedding representations.
- **Diversity features:** entropy, type-token ratio and others.

The weights are tuned with Bayesian Optimization. The black-box function trains a model on the top-ranked examples and returns its score on a small target validation set, so the approach does not depend on the model. Experiments cover sentiment analysis on Amazon reviews, plus POS tagging and dependency parsing on SANCL 2012. On all three tasks the learned measures outperform existing similarity metrics, and they perform on par with a leading domain adaptation approach. Diversity complements similarity, and the learned weights partly carry over across models, domains and related tasks.

## Key points
- **Optimization setup:** a Gaussian Process prior with Expected Improvement acquisition. The authors also tried FABOLAS but found its results inconclusive for their small training sets.
- **Similarity features:** Jensen-Shannon, Rényi (α = 0.99), Bhattacharyya, cosine, Euclidean and variational distance. They are computed over term distributions, LDA topic distributions and weighted word embeddings.
- **Diversity features:** number of word types, type-token ratio, entropy, Simpson's index, Rényi entropy and quadratic entropy.
- **Data and models:**
  - Sentiment: Amazon reviews, 4 domains with 2,000 labeled reviews each, a linear SVM on tf-idf unigrams and bigrams, and n = 1600 selected examples.
  - POS tagging and parsing: SANCL 2012, 6 domains, a Structured Perceptron tagger and a Bi-LSTM parser (Kiperwasser and Goldberg, 2016) evaluated with LAS.
- **Cross-task transfer:** weights transfer well between POS tagging and parsing, but performance drops sharply between unrelated tasks such as sentiment analysis and POS tagging. Combining similarity and diversity features gives the most robust transfer.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

## Institutions

- [University of Groningen](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/university-of-groningen/) — University, Groningen, Netherlands · 49 works · 4,843 citations
- [Ollscoil na Gaillimhe – University of Galway](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/ollscoil-na-gaillimhe-university-of-galway/) — University, Galway, Ireland · 14 works · 2,181 citations

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## Cite

Cite as: Sebastian Ruder and Barbara Plank. 2017. Learning to select data for transfer learning with Bayesian Optimization. Proceedings of the 2017 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing.

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{ruder2017learning,
  title = {{Learning to select data for transfer learning with Bayesian Optimization}},
  author = {Sebastian Ruder and Barbara Plank},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2017 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing},
  year = {2017},
  doi = {10.18653/v1/d17-1038},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/d17-1038}
}
```

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*Updated 24 October 2026*