---
title: "Developing Age and Gender Predictive Lexica over Social Media"
description: "This paper builds openly released predictive lexica for both attributes. 39 references, cited by 66 papers here."
authors: ["Maarten Sap", "Gregory Park", "Johannes Eichstaedt", "Margaret Kern", "David Stillwell", "Michal Kosinski", "Lyle Ungar", "Hansen Andrew Schwartz"]
year: 2014
venue: "Proceedings of the 2014 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP)"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/D14-1121/"
doi: "10.3115/v1/d14-1121"
licence: "CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (ACL Anthology, before 2016)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/sap-2014-developing-age-gender-predictive-lexica/"
---
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# Developing Age and Gender Predictive Lexica over Social Media

**Authors:** [Maarten Sap](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/maarten-sap/), Gregory Park, Johannes Eichstaedt, Margaret Kern, David Stillwell, [Michal Kosinski](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/michal-kosinski/), [Lyle Ungar](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/lyle-ungar/) and [Hansen Andrew Schwartz](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/hansen-andrew-schwartz/) · **Year:** 2014 · **Venue:** [Proceedings of the 2014 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP)](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/emnlp/) ([EMNLP 2014](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/emnlp/2014/)) · **Publisher:** [Association for Computational Linguistics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/association-for-computational-linguistics/) · **Licence:** [CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (ACL Anthology, before 2016)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/D14-1121/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/D14-1121.pdf) · [DOI 10.3115/v1/d14-1121](https://doi.org/10.3115/v1/d14-1121) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W2251812186)

**Citations:** 230 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · [66](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/sap-2014-developing-age-gender-predictive-lexica/cited-by/) in our library, of the 141,840 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
Large-scale social media studies often lack age and gender information, even though these attributes strongly shape behaviour and language. This paper builds openly released predictive lexica for both attributes. The authors use the MyPersonality Facebook dataset (75,394 English-speaking users with self-reported age and gender, over 300M words), plus annotated blogs and gender-labelled Twitter users. They observe that a linear model over relative word frequencies is mathematically the same as a weighted lexicon plus an intercept. So they fit ridge regression for continuous age and an L1-penalized linear SVM for gender on 1gram features, then distribute the learned coefficients as word–weight lists. On held-out Facebook users, the lexica reach close to state-of-the-art results, about r = .83 for age and roughly 91.9% gender accuracy. Lexica trained on several platforms together generalize to blogs and Twitter almost as well as platform-specific models. Packaging the models as lexica gives social scientists, who already rely on hand-built lexica like LIWC, a transparent and portable data-driven tool.

## Key points
- Training data: 72,874 Facebook users (2009–2011), each with at least 1,000 words and under 65 years old. Test data: 1,000 random users plus a stratified sample balanced by gender across 4-year age bins from 13 to 60.
- Features are 1grams from the Happier Fun Tokenizer, kept only if used by at least 1% of users. Age is modelled with ridge regression and gender with a linear SVM with L1 penalty, which also shrinks the lexicon.
- In-domain Facebook results: the FB lexicon gives age r = .835 (MAE 3.40 years) and 91.7% gender accuracy. Adding 2- and 3-grams pushes this to r = .85 and 92.7%.
- Cross-domain results: the Facebook-only lexica drop on blogs (age r = .710, gender 77.4%). The combined FB+BG+T gender lexicon reaches 90.0% on Twitter, beating earlier text-only Twitter results of 75.5–87%. The released models are the FB+BG age lexicon and the FB+BG+T gender lexicon.
- Accuracy falls as the number of messages per user shrinks. Age r and gender accuracy are .820/.901 at 100 messages, .688/.796 at 20, and only .156/.554 with a single message.

## Interesting ideas
- **A linear model is a lexicon.** If the features are relative word frequencies, a regression or classifier's coefficients can be shipped as a simple word–weight list with an intercept. This makes a trained model easy to share and inspect, and usable without ML tooling, for example in a Ukrainian sentiment or register lexicon.
- **Multivariate weighting instead of univariate scores.** Fitting all words jointly, rather than scoring each in isolation as PMI does, keeps correlated words from counting the same signal twice. This is worth adopting whenever lexicon words co-occur heavily.
- **L1 penalty as lexicon compression.** Sparse regularization zeroes out many weights and so produces a smaller, more practical lexicon with little loss in accuracy.
- **Pooling training data across genres.** Training on several platforms together gave nearly domain-specific performance everywhere. This is a cheap way to obtain one robust model when target genres vary.
- **Evaluation beyond a random split.** Testing on a demographically stratified sample and on out-of-domain corpora reveals biases that a skewed random test set hides. Measuring accuracy as available text per user shrinks shows how much input a model needs in practice.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

## Institutions

- [University of Pennsylvania](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/university-of-pennsylvania/) — University, Philadelphia, United States · 170 works · 60,739 citations
- [University of Cambridge](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/university-of-cambridge/) — University, Cambridge, United Kingdom · 155 works · 115,562 citations

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## Cite

Cite as: Maarten Sap, Gregory Park, Johannes Eichstaedt, Margaret Kern, David Stillwell, Michal Kosinski, Lyle Ungar and Hansen Andrew Schwartz. 2014. Developing Age and Gender Predictive Lexica over Social Media. Proceedings of the 2014 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP).

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{sap2014developing,
  title = {{Developing Age and Gender Predictive Lexica over Social Media}},
  author = {Maarten Sap, Gregory Park, Johannes Eichstaedt, Margaret Kern, David Stillwell, Michal Kosinski, Lyle Ungar and Hansen Andrew Schwartz},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2014 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP)},
  year = {2014},
  doi = {10.3115/v1/d14-1121},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.3115/v1/d14-1121}
}
```

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*Updated 24 October 2026*