---
title: "Bootstrapping a Neural Conversational Agent with Dialogue"
description: "The authors propose a four-step recipe built on Machines Talking To Machines (M2M): A… 30 references, cited by 65 papers here."
authors: ["Pararth Shah", "Dilek Hakkani-Tür", "Bing Liu", "Gokhan Tür"]
year: 2018
venue: "Proceedings of the 2018 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 3 (Industry Papers)"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/N18-3006/"
doi: "10.18653/v1/n18-3006"
licence: "CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/shah-2018-bootstrapping-neural-conversational-agent-dialogue/"
---
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# Bootstrapping a Neural Conversational Agent with Dialogue Self-Play, Crowdsourcing and On-Line Reinforcement Learning

**Authors:** [Pararth Shah](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/pararth-shah/), [Dilek Hakkani-Tür](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/dilek-hakkani-tur/), [Bing Liu](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/bing-liu/) and [Gokhan Tür](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/gokhan-tur/) · **Year:** 2018 · **Venue:** [Proceedings of the 2018 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 3 (Industry Papers)](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/naacl/) ([NAACL 2018](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/naacl/2018/)) · **Publisher:** [Association for Computational Linguistics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/association-for-computational-linguistics/) · **Licence:** [CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/N18-3006/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/N18-3006.pdf) · [DOI 10.18653/v1/n18-3006](https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/n18-3006) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W2806600904)

**Citations:** 116 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · [65](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/shah-2018-bootstrapping-neural-conversational-agent-dialogue/cited-by/) in our library, of the 141,840 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
The paper addresses a practical obstacle for task-oriented conversational agents. End-to-end neural models need large annotated dialogue corpora, which are costly to build for every new domain. Wizard-of-Oz collection also often misses dialogue flows a developer expects the agent to handle.

The authors propose a four-step recipe built on Machines Talking To Machines (M2M):
1. A task-independent user simulator and a rule-based system agent, given only a slot schema and a database API, converse with each other. This produces annotated dialogue "outlines" written in template language.
2. Crowd workers rewrite each template turn into natural, context-aware language.
3. A neural agent is trained on the resulting fully annotated corpus.
4. The deployed agent keeps improving through on-line reinforcement learning from user feedback.

The released datasets show more lexical and dialogue-flow diversity than DSTC2. A model trained with supervised learning and then refined with RL received better human ratings than the supervised-only model, both with simulated and with real users. The approach matters because it turns a developer's hand-written policy into a trainable model that is safe to deploy from day one.

## Key points
- **Released datasets:** Sim-M (movie ticket booking) and Sim-R (restaurant table reservation), about 3000 dialogues in total, available in the google-research-datasets/simulated-dialogue repository.
- **Self-play components:**
  - an agenda-based user simulator whose behavior is governed by two inputs, the goal the user is pursuing and the user's profile;
  - a handcrafted finite state machine system agent that moves through fixed sub-dialogues: gather preferences, query the API, offer entities, allow changes or questions, complete the transaction.
- **Annotation scheme:** dialogue acts follow the Cambridge dialogue act schema, and each outline is rewritten by K > 1 crowd workers.
- **Diversity comparison:** Sim-R (1611 training dialogues) was compared with DSTC2 (1116). It had higher unique unigram and bigram ratios and higher outline diversity, measured for sub-dialogues of length 1, 3 and 5 and for full dialogues.
- **Model evaluation:**
  - The model (Liu et al. 2017) was trained with supervised learning on Sim-M, then with RL for 10K simulated episodes.
  - Each system was evaluated over 100 episodes, with turns rated 1–5 by three judges.
  - SL+RL beat SL alone.
  - Ratings were lower with real users than with the simulator.

## Interesting ideas
- **Separate semantics from wording.** Generate the semantic skeleton of each dialogue automatically, then let humans supply only the surface language. Coverage of flows can then be guaranteed by design, and annotations come for free, which helps any low-resource domain or language.
- **Ask crowd workers to paraphrase, not invent.** Rewriting a given template is a well-scoped job that yields cleaner data than open-ended dialogue writing. It is a useful recipe for building corpora with modest budgets, for example for Ukrainian.
- **Use rewriting to add realistic phenomena.** Showing the whole dialogue context while workers rewrite lets them add coreference and lexical entrainment naturally. These are features that templates alone cannot produce.
- **Measure diversity of flows, not just words.** Outline diversity is the share of unique act sequences at several sub-dialogue lengths. It is a simple, reusable metric for checking whether a dialogue dataset covers varied interaction patterns.
- **Distill a rule system into a neural model, then refine it with RL.** Converting a hand-written policy into a differentiable model gives a guaranteed baseline at launch. The model can then keep learning from live feedback, a pattern applicable wherever rule-based systems already exist.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

## Institutions

- [Google](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/companies/google/) — Company, Mountain View, United States · 353 works · 364,806 citations
- [Carnegie Mellon University](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/carnegie-mellon-university/) — University, Pittsburgh, United States · 365 works · 158,048 citations

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🧭 Topics (1): [🗨️ Dialogue systems](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/dialogue-systems/) · 401 works

## Cite

Cite as: Pararth Shah, Dilek Hakkani-Tür, Bing Liu and Gokhan Tür. 2018. Bootstrapping a Neural Conversational Agent with Dialogue Self-Play, Crowdsourcing and On-Line Reinforcement Learning. Proceedings of the 2018 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 3 (Industry Papers).

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{shah2018bootstrapping,
  title = {{Bootstrapping a Neural Conversational Agent with Dialogue Self-Play, Crowdsourcing and On-Line Reinforcement Learning}},
  author = {Pararth Shah, Dilek Hakkani-Tür, Bing Liu and Gokhan Tür},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2018 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 3 (Industry Papers)},
  year = {2018},
  doi = {10.18653/v1/n18-3006},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/n18-3006}
}
```

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*Updated 24 October 2026*