---
title: "Predicting Lexical Complexity in English Texts: The Complex 2.0"
description: "The authors propose a continuous task instead, Lexical Complexity Prediction (LCP). 88 references, cited by 35 papers here."
authors: ["Matthew Shardlow", "Richard Evans", "Marcos Zampieri"]
year: 2021
venue: "arXiv:2102.08773 · Lang Resources and Evaluation 56, 1153-1194 (2022)"
source: "https://arxiv.org/abs/2102.08773"
doi: "10.1007/s10579-022-09588-2"
arxiv: "2102.08773"
licence: "arXiv — non-exclusive license to distribute"
licence_url: "http://arxiv.org/licenses/nonexclusive-distrib/1.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/shardlow-2021-predicting-lexical-complexity-english-texts/"
---
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# Predicting Lexical Complexity in English Texts: The Complex 2.0 Dataset

**Authors:** [Matthew Shardlow](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/matthew-shardlow/), [Richard Evans](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/richard-evans/) and [Marcos Zampieri](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/marcos-zampieri/) · **Year:** 2021 · **Venue:** [arXiv:2102.08773 · Lang Resources and Evaluation 56, 1153-1194 (2022)](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/language-resources-and-evaluation/) ([Language Resources and Evaluation 2021](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/language-resources-and-evaluation/2021/)) · **Publisher:** [Springer Science+Business Media](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/springer-science-business-media/) · **Licence:** [arXiv — non-exclusive license to distribute](http://arxiv.org/licenses/nonexclusive-distrib/1.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://doi.org/10.1007/s10579-022-09588-2) · [PDF](https://arxiv.org/pdf/2102.08773) · [DOI 10.1007/s10579-022-09588-2](https://doi.org/10.1007/s10579-022-09588-2) · [arXiv 2102.08773](https://arxiv.org/abs/2102.08773) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W4293086888)

**Citations:** 14 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · 35 in our library, of the 141,840 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
The paper argues that Complex Word Identification (CWI) has been framed badly. Most work treats it as a binary decision, usually decided by whether any annotator marked a word as hard. The authors propose a continuous task instead, Lexical Complexity Prediction (LCP).

They do three things:
- They survey the CWI–2016 and CWI–2018 shared tasks.
- They study which features correlate with complexity.
- They examine annotation problems in CWI–2016, CWI–2018 and Maddela–2018.

From this analysis they derive a set of recommendations for building complexity datasets. They then extend CompLex 1.0 into CompLex 2.0, an English corpus covering three genres. In it, crowd workers rate each target word in context on a 5-point Likert scale, and the ratings are averaged into a single score. The resource covers single words and multi-word expressions, and it served as the official data for SemEval-2021 Task 1.

The experiments show three things:
- Complexity can be predicted across genres.
- Words rated harder are also rated less consistently.
- The same token's score shifts between contexts.

The authors conclude that graded judgments describe complexity better than binary ones. CompLex 2.0 is the first public dataset of continuous, in-context complexity scores.

## Key points
- **CWI–2016 (SemEval):**
  - Training data had 2,237 target words in 200 sentences, each rated by 20 annotators; one "complex" vote was enough to label a word complex.
  - Test data had 88,221 words in 9,000 sentences, each judged by a single annotator.
  - 21 teams submitted 42 systems, and the best F1 was only 0.353 (PLUJAGH).
- **CWI–2018 (BEA workshop):** it covered English, Spanish, German and French, and added a probabilistic track. However, its "probability" was simply the share of annotators who chose the binary label "complex".
- **CompLex rating scale:** a 5-point Likert scale from Very Easy to Very Difficult, with the mean taken per instance. The authors acknowledge this assumes the scale points are evenly spaced.
- **Categorical comparison:** the CWI-2016 and CWI-2018 datasets outperformed CompLex 2.0 (Table 13). The authors present this as a comparison of which features matter, not as a quality ranking.
- **Release and future work:** CompLex 2.0 is released under CC-BY at github.com/MMU-TDMLab/CompLex. The authors suggest future work on sense-annotated complexity data.

## Interesting ideas
- Replace "one annotator objected, so the label is positive" with averaged graded ratings, so that a single outlier cannot flip a label and the scores carry fine-grained signal.
- Read the spread of annotator ratings as a signal in its own right: items with high disagreement are genuinely subjective, not just noisy.
- Score each new dataset against a written table of design recommendations, so that resources can be compared feature by feature.
- Train on several genres together and test on held-out genres, to check that the model learns genre-independent properties rather than domain quirks.
- Model difficulty from frequency and polysemy jointly, with a predicted order from frequent monosemous words (easiest) to rare polysemous words (hardest).

## For Mova

How these ideas could serve Mova, our small open language model — its files, stages and tests:

- **I1** (learn): store silver-tree agreement among witness parsers as a graded score per arc, not a binary accept/reject, and weight training examples by that score.
- **I2** (answer): when a reader faces a test question, items whose underlying words or frames are "disputed" in the teacher/witness data could get lower answer confidence and an explicit explanation of why.
- **I3** (learn): keep a fixed checklist for every treebank and silver set (sources, genres, agreement, context kept, MWEs covered) and publish it alongside the evaluation with negative controls.
- **I4** (tree): evaluate the perceptron parser and gparse with leave-one-genre-out splits to see which parse errors come from the domain rather than from the grammar.
- **I5** (world): combine WordNet sense counts with corpus frequency in the compiled lexicon to give an explainable difficulty estimate per lemma, useful for flagging hard words in school-course texts.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

## Institutions

- [University of Wolverhampton](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/university-of-wolverhampton/) — University, Wolverhampton, United Kingdom · 30 works · 6,272 citations
- [Rochester Institute of Technology](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/rochester-institute-of-technology/) — University, Rochester, United States · 10 works · 4,906 citations
- [Manchester Metropolitan University](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/manchester-metropolitan-university/) — University, Manchester, United Kingdom · 2 works · 204 citations

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🧭 Topics (1): [English](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/english/) · 1,373 works

## Cite

Cite as: Matthew Shardlow, Richard Evans and Marcos Zampieri. 2021. Predicting Lexical Complexity in English Texts: The Complex 2.0 Dataset. arXiv:2102.08773 · Lang Resources and Evaluation 56, 1153-1194 (2022).

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@misc{shardlow2021predicting,
  title = {{Predicting Lexical Complexity in English Texts: The Complex 2.0 Dataset}},
  author = {Matthew Shardlow, Richard Evans and Marcos Zampieri},
  year = {2021},
  doi = {10.1007/s10579-022-09588-2},
  eprint = {2102.08773},
  archivePrefix = {arXiv},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s10579-022-09588-2}
}
```

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*Updated 24 October 2026*