---
title: "LLM-SR — paper by Shojaee et al. (2024) — summary and ideas"
description: "Symbolic regression aims to recover compact, interpretable formulas from observations. 50 references, cited by 41 papers here."
authors: ["Parshin Shojaee", "Kazem Meidani", "Shashank Gupta", "Amir Barati Farimani", "Chandan K Reddy"]
year: 2024
venue: "arXiv:2404.18400"
source: "https://arxiv.org/abs/2404.18400"
doi: "10.48550/arxiv.2404.18400"
arxiv: "2404.18400"
licence: "CC BY 4.0 (arXiv)"
licence_url: "http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/shojaee-2024-llm-sr-scientific-equation/"
---
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# LLM-SR: Scientific Equation Discovery via Programming with Large Language Models

**Authors:** [Parshin Shojaee](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/parshin-shojaee/), [Kazem Meidani](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/kazem-meidani/), [Shashank Gupta](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/shashank-gupta/), [Amir Barati Farimani](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/amir-barati-farimani/) and [Chandan K Reddy](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/chandan-k-reddy/) · **Year:** 2024 · **Venue:** arXiv:2404.18400 · **Licence:** [CC BY 4.0 (arXiv)](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://arxiv.org/abs/2404.18400) · [PDF](https://arxiv.org/pdf/2404.18400) · [DOI 10.48550/arxiv.2404.18400](https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2404.18400) · [arXiv 2404.18400](https://arxiv.org/abs/2404.18400) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W4396570446)

**Citations:** 6 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · [41](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/shojaee-2024-llm-sr-scientific-equation/cited-by/) in our library, of the 149,439 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
Symbolic regression aims to recover compact, interpretable formulas from observations. The search space is combinatorially huge (the task is NP-hard), and classic tools such as genetic programming over expression trees ignore the domain knowledge that human scientists bring. LLM-SR addresses this by asking a large language model to write candidate equations as Python functions. Each candidate is a skeleton whose numeric constants are left as placeholders, and the prompt describes the problem and its variables in plain language. An optimizer then fits the constants to data and scores the result. The best-scoring programs go into an experience buffer, which supplies in-context examples for the next round, forming an evolutionary refinement loop. Popular benchmarks like Feynman may already be memorized by LLMs, so the authors built four new problems with synthetic twists. Across these problems, LLM-SR beat leading symbolic regression baselines, with the largest gains on out-of-domain data, and it reached good equations in fewer iterations. This suggests LLM priors can make automated equation discovery both more efficient and more physically meaningful.

## Key points
- **Method:** The framework has three stages: hypothesis generation by the LLM, data-driven evaluation, and experience management through a diverse buffer of strong candidates. Constants are fitted with Torch+Adam or NumPy+BFGS.
- **Backbone LLMs:** GPT-3.5-turbo and Mixtral-8x7B. The baselines include DSR, uDSR and PySR.
- **Benchmarks:** Four custom problems were designed to avoid recitation:
  - two nonlinear oscillators (Oscillation 1 and 2),
  - E. coli growth rate (biology),
  - a temperature-dependent stress-strain relation (materials science).
- **Flexible representation:** Because candidates are programs, they can use if-else logic or sigmoid relaxations to capture piecewise behavior, such as the plastic region in stress-strain data. Expression-tree methods struggle with this.
- **Ablations:** Removing any of these components hurts performance: problem descriptions, program representation, data feedback, or iterative refinement. Code and data are available at github.com/deep-symbolic-mathematics/LLM-SR.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

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## Cite

Cite as: Parshin Shojaee, Kazem Meidani, Shashank Gupta, Amir Barati Farimani and Chandan K Reddy. 2024. LLM-SR: Scientific Equation Discovery via Programming with Large Language Models. arXiv:2404.18400.

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@misc{shojaee2024llm,
  title = {{LLM-SR: Scientific Equation Discovery via Programming with Large Language Models}},
  author = {Parshin Shojaee, Kazem Meidani, Shashank Gupta, Amir Barati Farimani and Chandan K Reddy},
  year = {2024},
  doi = {10.48550/arxiv.2404.18400},
  eprint = {2404.18400},
  archivePrefix = {arXiv},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2404.18400}
}
```

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## References

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*Updated 3 November 2026*