---
title: "On the Limitations of Unsupervised Bilingual — Søgaard 2018"
description: "Fully unsupervised machine translation (e.g., Lample et al., 2018a) depends on aligning monolingual word embedding spaces without any dictionary."
authors: ["Anders Søgaard", "Sebastian Ruder", "Ivan Vulić"]
year: 2018
venue: "Proceedings of the 56th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/P18-1072/"
doi: "10.18653/v1/p18-1072"
licence: "CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/sogaard-2018-limitations-unsupervised-bilingual-dictionary-induction/"
---
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# On the Limitations of Unsupervised Bilingual Dictionary Induction

**Authors:** [Anders Søgaard](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/anders-sogaard/), [Sebastian Ruder](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/sebastian-ruder/), [Ivan Vulić](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/ivan-vulic/) · **Year:** 2018 · **Venue:** Proceedings of the 56th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers) · **Licence:** [CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/P18-1072/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/P18-1072.pdf) · [DOI 10.18653/v1/p18-1072](https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/p18-1072) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W2798886742)

**Citations:** 254 citations (openalex-snapshot · 2026-10-14) · [142](#cited-by) in our library, of the 140673 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
Fully unsupervised machine translation (e.g., Lample et al., 2018a) depends on aligning monolingual word embedding spaces without any dictionary. This approach assumes that such spaces are nearly isomorphic across languages. The paper tests that assumption using the adversarial bilingual dictionary induction (BDI) method of Conneau et al. (2018), implemented in MUSE with fastText embeddings.

The authors first apply the VF2 algorithm and find that nearest neighbor graphs of frequent words and their translations are generally not isomorphic, even for English–German. They then move beyond the original, favourable setup and evaluate three harder conditions:
- morphologically rich, non-dependent-marking languages;
- monolingual corpora from mismatched domains;
- embeddings trained with different hyper-parameters or dimensionality.

Accuracy drops sharply in these settings. A cheap fix makes induction much more robust: seeding the Procrustes refinement with identically spelled words found in both vocabularies. Finally, a spectral measure built on Laplacian eigenvalues closely tracks BDI success. The study matters because unsupervised MT may break down for exactly the low-resource, typologically distant languages it is meant to serve.

## Key points
- The original evaluation covered English to French, German, Chinese, Russian and Spanish, mostly dependent-marking languages, using comparable Wikipedia corpora. This study adds Estonian, Finnish, Greek, Hungarian, Polish and Turkish, and mixes Wikipedia, EuroParl and EMEA domains.
- In 10 random samples of frequent English nouns paired with their Spanish translations, only one pair of nearest neighbor graphs was isomorphic.
- The proposed metric Δ sums the squared differences between the largest Laplacian eigenvalues of two graphs. The number of eigenvalues used is set by a 90% spectral-mass cutoff, and Δ = 0 means the graphs are isospectral. Δ correlates with BDI performance at ρ ≈ 0.89.
- EN–FI reached P@1 = 0 in every frequency band and word group analysed. Verbs were the hardest part of speech overall.
- Query words whose translations are spelled identically scored lower than other words. For EN–ES, P@1 was about 46% (same spelling, same meaning), 40% (same spelling, different meaning) and 62% (other words). For EN–HU, the corresponding figures were 18%, 30% and 34%.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

Fields: [Natural language processing](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/nlp/)

## Cited by

Cited by

142 papers of our library cite it (of the 140673 whose bibliographies we read); 10 of them have a page here, 132 not yet.

- [JW300: A Wide-Coverage Parallel Corpus for Low-Resource Languages](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/agic-2019-jw300-wide-coverage-parallel-corpus/)
- [On the Cross-lingual Transferability of Monolingual Representations](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/artetxe-2020-cross-lingual-transferability-monolingual-representations/)
- [Emerging Cross-lingual Structure in Pretrained Language Models](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/conneau-2020-emerging-cross-lingual-structure-pretrained/)
- [The FLORES Evaluation Datasets for Low-Resource Machine Translation: Nepali–English and Sinhala–English](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/guzman-2019-flores-evaluation-datasets-low-resource/)
- [Challenges and Strategies in Cross-Cultural NLP](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/hershcovich-2022-challenges-strategies-cross-cultural-nlp/)
- [From Zero to Hero: On the Limitations of Zero-Shot Language Transfer with Multilingual Transformers](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/lauscher-2020-zero-hero-limitations-zero-shot/)
- [UNKs Everywhere: Adapting Multilingual Language Models to New Scripts](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/pfeiffer-2021-unks-everywhere-adapting-multilingual-language/)
- [XTREME-R: Towards More Challenging and Nuanced Multilingual Evaluation](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/ruder-2021-xtreme-r-more-challenging-nuanced/)
- [Probing Pretrained Language Models for Lexical Semantics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/vulic-2020-probing-pretrained-language-models-lexical/)
- [On Negative Interference in Multilingual Models: Findings and A Meta-Learning Treatment](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/wang-2020-negative-interference-multilingual-models-findings/)

## Cite

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{sogaard2018limitations,
  title = {{On the Limitations of Unsupervised Bilingual Dictionary Induction}},
  author = {Søgaard, Anders and Ruder, Sebastian and Vulić, Ivan},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 56th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers)},
  year = {2018},
  doi = {10.18653/v1/p18-1072},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/p18-1072}
}
```

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