---
title: "A data science and machine learning approach to continuous"
description: "The paper asks whether Shakespeare's writing style changed measurably across his career. 54 references."
authors: ["Charles Swisher", "Lior Shamir"]
year: 2023
venue: "arXiv:2301.06024 · Journal of Data Mining & Digital Humanities, 2023 (July 13, 2023) jdmdh:10829"
source: "https://arxiv.org/abs/2301.06024"
doi: "10.46298/jdmdh.10829"
arxiv: "2301.06024"
licence: "arXiv — non-exclusive license to distribute"
licence_url: "http://arxiv.org/licenses/nonexclusive-distrib/1.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/swisher-2023-data-science-machine-learning-approach/"
---
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# A data science and machine learning approach to continuous analysis of Shakespeare's plays

**Authors:** Charles Swisher and Lior Shamir · **Year:** 2023 · **Venue:** [arXiv:2301.06024 · Journal of Data Mining & Digital Humanities, 2023 (July 13, 2023) jdmdh:10829](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/journal-of-data-mining-digital-humanities/) ([Journal of Data Mining & Digital Humanities 2023](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/journal-of-data-mining-digital-humanities/2023/)) · **Publisher:** [Nicolas Turenne](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/nicolas-turenne/) · **Licence:** [arXiv — non-exclusive license to distribute](http://arxiv.org/licenses/nonexclusive-distrib/1.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://doi.org/10.46298/jdmdh.10829) · [PDF](https://arxiv.org/pdf/2301.06024) · [DOI 10.46298/jdmdh.10829](https://doi.org/10.46298/jdmdh.10829) · [arXiv 2301.06024](https://arxiv.org/abs/2301.06024) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W4384197836)

**Citations:** 5 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14)

## Summary
The paper asks whether Shakespeare's writing style changed measurably across his career. It also asks whether the plays can be placed in time from style alone. The authors take the 38 plays from the MIT "Complete Works" site, leaving out the disputed "Edward III", and remove headers and front matter. Each play gets one representative composition year based on the Royal Shakespeare Company timeline. The Udat tool, built on CoreNLP, turns every play into 298 numeric descriptors covering word and sentence length, punctuation, vocabulary diversity, POS distributions, sentiment, readability, Soundex sound patterns and topic words. Each descriptor is weighted by its Pearson correlation with the year, and a weighted nearest-neighbour regressor then estimates each play's year. The predicted and assumed dates correlate at 0.71. Over time, sentences get shorter, adjectives and adverbs become more frequent, and the tone becomes less negative. Some plays fit a different period than their date suggests: "Romeo and Juliet" resembles the post-1600 plays. The approach is not driven by a prior hypothesis, and the code is public. This makes it a reusable template for stylometry in the digital humanities.

## Key points
- Corpus: 38 plays with one assigned year each. Udat with CoreNLP extracts 298 descriptors, including DFT-based periodicity of POS sequences and per-sentence CoreNLP sentiment on a 0–4 scale.
- Year prediction: Pearson r = 0.71 between actual and predicted year, with a two-tailed p ≈ 6·10⁻⁷.
- Single-feature trends against year:
  - mean sentence length r = −0.53 (shortest in 1600–1607);
  - very negative sentences r = −0.47;
  - negative sentences r = −0.57;
  - positive sentences r = 0.51.
- "Romeo and Juliet" is dated 1596, yet its word homogeneity, topic words, modal auxiliaries and sentiment match the later plays.
- Comedy vs tragedy classification:
  - Setup: 9 training plays and 1 test play per class, repeated over 100 random splits.
  - Accuracy: 74%.
  - Comedies have longer words, a higher Coleman–Liau index, more Soundex diversity, more "?" and more variable sentence length.

## Interesting ideas
- Weighting each feature by its Pearson correlation with the target and then running a nearest-neighbour search gives a predictor whose every weight can be read and justified.
- Cases where the model disagrees with the label are treated as findings rather than errors, as when a play "looks" like another period.
- A Discrete Fourier Transform over the POS sequence captures rhythmic, repeating grammatical patterns that plain frequency counts miss.
- Classification accuracy is reported over many random train/test splits and judged against a 50% chance level, which keeps a small-sample claim honest.
- Sentiment is tracked sentence by sentence, including how it varies through a text, rather than as one document-level score.

## For Mova

How these ideas could serve Mova, our small open language model — its files, stages and tests:

- **I1** (learn): such a model could estimate text difficulty or genre from tree-derived statistics while staying fully explainable, unlike an opaque regressor.
- **I2** (learn): sentences or documents whose parse statistics clash with their source treebank or dialect could be flagged automatically as candidates for annotation or conversion bugs.
- **I3** (tokens): POS periodicity spectra could cheaply detect tagger drift or odd input genres, such as verse or lists, before parsing.
- **I4** (learn): the same repeated-split protocol with an explicit chance baseline fits naturally into evaluation with negative controls on small test sets.
- **I5** (world): a per-sentence affect trajectory could be attached to entities and event order, supporting questions about how a character's situation turns in fables and tales.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

## Institutions

- [Kansas State University](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/kansas-state-university/) — University, Manhattan, United States · 4 works · 190 citations

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## Cite

Cite as: Charles Swisher and Lior Shamir. 2023. A data science and machine learning approach to continuous analysis of Shakespeare's plays. arXiv:2301.06024 · Journal of Data Mining & Digital Humanities, 2023 (July 13, 2023) jdmdh:10829.

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@misc{swisher2023data,
  title = {{A data science and machine learning approach to continuous analysis of Shakespeare's plays}},
  author = {Charles Swisher and Lior Shamir},
  year = {2023},
  doi = {10.46298/jdmdh.10829},
  eprint = {2301.06024},
  archivePrefix = {arXiv},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.46298/jdmdh.10829}
}
```

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## References

54 references, 3 of them with a card of ours. ↗ leads to the work, «find» searches for one we have no id for yet.

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*Updated 30 October 2026*