---
title: "Lexicalization, polysemy and loanwords in anger: A comparison"
description: "This study asks whether the vocabulary of an emotion behaves differently from ordinary, practical vocabulary in Middle English. 26 references."
authors: ["Louise Sylvester", "Megan Tiddeman"]
year: 2024
venue: "Lexis: Journal in English Lexicology 3"
source: "https://journals.openedition.org/lexis/8687"
doi: "10.4000/12ize"
licence: "CC BY-SA (journal licence per DOAJ; Lexis: Journal in English Lexicology)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/sylvester-2024-lexicalization-polysemy-loanwords-anger-comparison/"
---
[Elamur Research](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/) · [this page in HTML](https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/sylvester-2024-lexicalization-polysemy-loanwords-anger-comparison/)

[home](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/) / [papers](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/) / [2024](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/2024/page/16/) / Lexicalization, polysemy and loanwords in anger: A comparison with non-affective domains in Middle English

# Lexicalization, polysemy and loanwords in anger: A comparison with non-affective domains in Middle English

**Authors:** Louise Sylvester and Megan Tiddeman · **Year:** 2024 · **Venue:** [Lexis: Journal in English Lexicology 3](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/lexis/) ([Lexis 2024](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/lexis/2024/)) · **Publisher:** [Jean Moulin University - Lyon 3](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/jean-moulin-university-lyon-3/) · **Licence:** [CC BY-SA (journal licence per DOAJ; Lexis: Journal in English Lexicology)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://doi.org/10.4000/12ize) · [PDF](http://journals.openedition.org/lexis/pdf/8687) · [DOI 10.4000/12ize](https://doi.org/10.4000/12ize) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W4403508053)

**Citations:** 0 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14)

## Summary
This study asks whether the vocabulary of an emotion behaves differently from ordinary, practical vocabulary in Middle English. The authors set ANGER against nine everyday occupational domains, including BUILDING, FARMING, TRADE and MEDICINE. Their main resource is a 5818-term corpus covering roughly 1100–1500. Each item is placed in a Historical Thesaurus of English (HTE) category hierarchy and tagged for etymology and attestation dates.

Using this corpus, they compare three things across domains:
- how many words express each sense (lexicalization density),
- how many categories a word appears in (polysemy),
- whether the oldest term in a category survives once near-synonyms arrive.

A second set of 100 French and Latin loanwords is checked sense by sense against the source languages, using a shared HTE-based mapping.

ANGER turns out to be the most densely lexicalized domain, and its words are more polysemous. Its vocabulary also seems to turn over faster. Even so, borrowing did not drive native words into semantic shift or disuse on a large scale. Senses that loanwords developed after entering English occur at a similar rate in ANGER as elsewhere, but in ANGER they are much more often figurative. The findings bear on theories of borrowing, synonym pressure and semantic change in multilingual medieval England.

## Key points
- Dataset 1 has 5818 terms from ten domains, sorted into 2400 HTE categories and subcategories. Every item carries its etymology and its dates of attestation.
- ANGER is the only affective domain in the corpus. It is also the most heavily lexicalized. It holds an unusually large share of Old Norse loans: 7.2% (39 of 552), against a corpus average of 3.0%.
- Dataset 2 is a sample of 100 loanwords drawn from 1759 French and/or Latin borrowings. Each had to have 1–8 senses before ca. 1450, with at least one sense cited at least three times. The source languages split 73% French, 21% French and/or Latin, and 6% Latin.
- Senses in Middle English and in the source languages were aligned through a per-word "sense summary" keyed to HTE categories. This separates senses that were borrowed from senses that arose inside English.
- Semantic narrowing or broadening proved rare. An earlier project on FARMING and TRADE found 81 such cases among 1442 words, a rate of 5.6%.

## Interesting ideas
- An emotion domain is tested against several non-affective baseline domains built with identical methods, so a claim about anger being "special" counts only where it differs from the controls.
- Senses from different languages are projected onto one shared concept hierarchy (HTE), which makes sense overlap countable instead of impressionistic.
- The authors track the oldest word in a category as one, two or three near-synonyms join it, then record whether it survives, shifts or dies, giving a simple test of synonym competition.
- Loanwords were chosen only within a band of evidence: no hapaxes, no extreme polysemes, and a minimum citation count, so that conclusions rest on reliable data.
- Senses that develop after borrowing are marked as figurative or literal, which shows that the emotional domain innovates mostly through figurative extension.

## For Mova

How these ideas could serve Mova, our small open language model — its files, stages and tests:

- **I1** (learn): Evaluations of figurative or affective handling should always include matched literal-domain controls, so that apparent gains are not artifacts of the general pipeline.
- **I2** (world): Mapping English verb or noun senses onto a single WordNet/FrameNet-style backbone would make sense inventories from different sources comparable and auditable.
- **I3** (world): A similar "incumbent vs newcomer" record for lexicon entries could flag outdated or competing senses in compiled knowledge.
- **I4** (learn): Silver-data sense or frame statistics could be filtered with similar minimum-evidence and maximum-ambiguity thresholds before they are trusted for training.
- **I5** (frames): Frames for emotion words could carry a default expectation of metaphorical readings, helping the irony and implicature modules choose a non-literal interpretation.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

📚 Shelves (2): [🎭 Arts and Humanities](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/arts-and-humanities/) · 17,450 works · [🗣️ Language and Linguistics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/arts-and-humanities/language-and-linguistics/) · 17,296 works

🧭 Topics (4): [English](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/english/) · 2,379 works · [😊 Sentiment & emotion](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/sentiment-emotion/) · 1,035 works · [📖 Lexical semantics & word embeddings](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/lexical-semantics/) · 65 works · [⏳ Historical linguistics & language change](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/language-change/) · 250 works

## Cite

Cite as: Louise Sylvester and Megan Tiddeman. 2024. Lexicalization, polysemy and loanwords in anger: A comparison with non-affective domains in Middle English. Lexis: Journal in English Lexicology 3.

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@article{sylvester2024lexicalization,
  title = {{Lexicalization, polysemy and loanwords in anger: A comparison with non-affective domains in Middle English}},
  author = {Louise Sylvester and Megan Tiddeman},
  journal = {Lexis: Journal in English Lexicology 3},
  year = {2024},
  doi = {10.4000/12ize},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.4000/12ize}
}
```

- [← previous Large Language Models and Biblical Hebrew: Limitations, pitfalls, opportunities](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/staps-2024-large-language-models-biblical-hebrew/)
- [next → Lexico-syntactic features of ab initio pilots' and controllers' aeronautical English: A corpus linguistic investigation of aviation communication in the Philippine airspace](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/ferrer-2024-lexico-syntactic-features-ab-initio/)
- [↑ back to papers of 2024](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/2024/page/16/)

## References

26 references, 0 of them with a card of ours. ↗ leads to the work, «find» searches for one we have no id for yet.

1. Diller, Hans-Jürgen. 2014. Words for feelings: Studies in the history of the English emotion lexicon. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Diller%2C+Hans%2DJ%C3%BCrgen%2E+2014%2E+Words+for+feelings%3A+Studies+in+the+history+of+the+English+emotion+lexicon%2E)
2. Durkin, Philip. 2018. Exploring the penetration of loanwords in the core vocabulary of Middle English: Carry as a test case. English Language and Linguistics 22(2). 265-282. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Durkin%2C+Philip%2E+2018%2E+Exploring+the+penetration+of+loanwords+in+the+core+vocabulary+of+Middle+English%3A+Carry+as+a+test+case%2E+English+Language+and+Linguistics+22%282%29%2E+265%2D282%2E)
3. Durkin, Philip & Kathryn Allan. 2016. Borrowing and copy: A philological approach to Early Modern English lexicology. In Anita Auer, Victorina González-Díaz, Jane Hodson & Violeta Sotirova (eds.), Linguistics and literary history: In honour of Sylvia Adamson, 71-86. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Durkin%2C+Philip+%26+Kathryn+Allan%2E+2016%2E+Borrowing+and+copy%3A+A+philological+approach+to+Early+Modern+English+lexicology%2E+In+Anita+Auer%2C+Victorina+Gonz%C3%A1lez%2DD%C3%ADaz%2C+Jane+Hodson+%26+Violeta+Sotirova+%28eds%2E%29%2C+Lin)
4. Gevaert, Caroline. 2007. The history of anger: The lexical field of ANGER from Old to Early Modern English. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Gevaert%2C+Caroline%2E+2007%2E+The+history+of+anger%3A+The+lexical+field+of+ANGER+from+Old+to+Early+Modern+English%2E)
5. Ingham, Richard. 2021. Polysemy and borrowing: An investigation of French loans in Middle English. In Robert Kieltyka (ed.), Studies in the evolution of the English language, 207-226. Bern: Peter Lang. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Ingham%2C+Richard%2E+2021%2E+Polysemy+and+borrowing%3A+An+investigation+of+French+loans+in+Middle+English%2E+In+Robert+Kieltyka+%28ed%2E%29%2C+Studies+in+the+evolution+of+the+English+language%2C+207%2D226%2E+Bern%3A+Peter+Lang)
6. Pons-Sanz, Sara M. 2022. Medieval multilingualism and the expression of EMOTION : FEAR in the Gawain-poet’s texts. English Language and Linguistics 26(2). 361-398. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Pons%2DSanz%2C+Sara+M%2E+2022%2E+Medieval+multilingualism+and+the+expression+of+EMOTION+%3A+FEAR+in+the+Gawain%2Dpoet%E2%80%99s+texts%2E+English+Language+and+Linguistics+26%282%29%2E+361%2D398%2E)
7. Sylvester, Louise & Imogen Marcus. 2017. Studying French-origin Middle English lexis using the Bilingual thesaurus of medieval England: A comparison of the vocabulary of two occupational domains. In C. Delesse & E. Louviot (eds.), Studies in language variation and change, vol. 2: Shifting, switching and alternating patterns in the history of English, 217-228. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Sylvester%2C+Louise+%26+Imogen+Marcus%2E+2017%2E+Studying+French%2Dorigin+Middle+English+lexis+using+the+Bilingual+thesaurus+of+medieval+England%3A+A+comparison+of+the+vocabulary+of+two+occupational+domains%2E+In+C)
8. Sylvester, Louise, Imogen Marcus & Richard Ingham. 2017. A bilingual thesaurus of everyday life in medieval England: Some issues at the interface of semantics and lexicography. International Journal of Lexicography 30(3). 309-321. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Sylvester%2C+Louise%2C+Imogen+Marcus+%26+Richard+Ingham%2E+2017%2E+A+bilingual+thesaurus+of+everyday+life+in+medieval+England%3A+Some+issues+at+the+interface+of+semantics+and+lexicography%2E+International+Journal+o)
9. Sylvester, Louise, Megan Tiddeman & Richard Ingham. 2020. An analysis of French borrowings at the hypernymic and hyponymic levels of Middle English. Lexis: Journal of English Lexicology 16. https://doi.org/10.4000/lexis.3576. [↗](https://doi.org/10.4000/lexis.3576)
10. Sylvester, Louise, Megan Tiddeman & Richard Ingham. 2022a. Lexical borrowing in the Middle English period: A multi-domain analysis of semantic outcomes. English Language and Linguistics 26(2). 237-261. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Sylvester%2C+Louise%2C+Megan+Tiddeman+%26+Richard+Ingham%2E+2022a%2E+Lexical+borrowing+in+the+Middle+English+period%3A+A+multi%2Ddomain+analysis+of+semantic+outcomes%2E+English+Language+and+Linguistics+26%282%29%2E+237%2D261)
11. Sylvester, Louise, Megan Tiddeman & Richard Ingham. 2022b. Semantic shift in Middle English: Farming and trade as test cases. Transactions of the Philological Society 120(3). 427-446. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Sylvester%2C+Louise%2C+Megan+Tiddeman+%26+Richard+Ingham%2E+2022b%2E+Semantic+shift+in+Middle+English%3A+Farming+and+trade+as+test+cases%2E+Transactions+of+the+Philological+Society+120%283%29%2E+427%2D446%2E)
12. Tissari, Heli. 2017. Current emotion research in English linguistics: Words for emotions in the history of English. Emotion Review 9(1). 86-94. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Tissari%2C+Heli%2E+2017%2E+Current+emotion+research+in+English+linguistics%3A+Words+for+emotions+in+the+history+of+English%2E+Emotion+Review+9%281%29%2E+86%2D94%2E)
13. Traugott, Elizabeth Closs & Richard B. Dasher 2001. Regularity in semantic change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Traugott%2C+Elizabeth+Closs+%26+Richard+B%2E+Dasher+2001%2E+Regularity+in+semantic+change%2E+Cambridge%3A+Cambridge+University+Press%2E)
14. Trotter, David. 2013. Deinz certeins boundes: Where does Anglo-Norman begin and end? Romance Philology 67(1). 139-177. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Trotter%2C+David%2E+2013%2E+Deinz+certeins+boundes%3A+Where+does+Anglo%2DNorman+begin+and+end%3F+Romance+Philology+67%281%29%2E+139%2D177%2E)
15. Weinreich, Uriel. 1968. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. The Hague: Mouton. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Weinreich%2C+Uriel%2E+1968%2E+Languages+in+Contact%3A+Findings+and+Problems%2E+The+Hague%3A+Mouton%2E)
16. Corpus and (online) tools AND = Anglo-Norman Dictionary. W. Rothwell, D. Trotter et al. (eds.) 2000-. 2nd edn. Available at www.anglo-norman.net (26 August 2024). [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Corpus+and+%28online%29+tools+AND+%3D+Anglo%2DNorman+Dictionary%2E+W%2E+Rothwell%2C+D%2E+Trotter+et+al%2E+%28eds%2E%29+2000%2D%2E+2nd+edn%2E+Available+at+www%2Eanglo%2Dnorman%2Enet+%2826+August+2024%29%2E)
17. BTh = Ingham, Richard & Louise Sylvester (eds.). The bilingual thesaurus of everyday life in medieval England. Glasgow: University of Glasgow. Available at [https://thesaurus.ac.uk/bth/](https://thesaurus.ac.uk/bth/) (26 August 2024). [↗](https://thesaurus.ac.uk/bth/)
18. DEAF = Dictionnaire étymologique de l’ancien français. 1974-. Kurt Baldinger, Jean-Denis Gendron & Georges Straka (eds.). Québec: Presses de l’Université Laval. Available at http:/www.deaf-page.de/fr/index.php (26 August 2024). [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=DEAF+%3D+Dictionnaire+%C3%A9tymologique+de+l%E2%80%99ancien+fran%C3%A7ais%2E+1974%2D%2E+Kurt+Baldinger%2C+Jean%2DDenis+Gendron+%26+Georges+Straka+%28eds%2E%29%2E+Qu%C3%A9bec%3A+Presses+de+l%E2%80%99Universit%C3%A9+Laval%2E+Available+at+http%3A%2Fwww%2Edeaf%2Dpage%2Ede%2Ffr%2F)
19. DMF = Dictionnaire du moyen français. 2003-. Available at [http://www.atilf.fr/dmf/](http://www.atilf.fr/dmf/) (26 August 2024). [↗](http://www.atilf.fr/dmf/)
20. DMLBS = Latham, R. E., David Howlett & Richard Ashdowne (eds.). 1975-2013. Dictionary of medieval Latin from British sources. Oxford: Oxford University Press (for the British Academy). Available at [http://clt.brepolis.net/dmlbs/](http://clt.brepolis.net/dmlbs/). (26 August 2024). [↗](http://clt.brepolis.net/dmlbs/)
21. Godefroy, Frédéric (ed.). 1881-1902. Dictionnaire de l’ancienne langue française et de tous ses dialectes du IX e au XV e siècle. Edited by Paris: Vieweg. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Godefroy%2C+Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric+%28ed%2E%29%2E+1881%2D1902%2E+Dictionnaire+de+l%E2%80%99ancienne+langue+fran%C3%A7aise+et+de+tous+ses+dialectes+du+IX+e+au+XV+e+si%C3%A8cle%2E+Edited+by+Paris%3A+Vieweg%2E)
22. HTE = The historical thesaurus of English. 2023. 2nd edn., version 5.0. Glasgow: University of Glasgow. Available at [https://ht.ac.uk/](https://ht.ac.uk/). (26 August 2024). [↗](https://ht.ac.uk/)
23. MED = Middle English dictionary. 2018. Online edn. in Middle English Compendium by Frances McSparran et al. (eds.). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Library. Available at [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/middle-english-dictionary/](http://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/middle-english-dictionary/). (26 August 2024). [↗](http://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/middle-english-dictionary/)
24. OED = Oxford English dictionary online. 2000-. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Available at [https://www.oed.com](https://www.oed.com). (26 August 2024). [↗](https://www.oed.com)
25. Le trésor de la langue française. 1971-1994. Available at [http://atilf.atilf.fr/tlfi.htm](http://atilf.atilf.fr/tlfi.htm). (26 August 2024). von Wartburg, Walther (ed.). 1922-1978. Französisches etymologisches Wörterbuch: Eine Darstellung des galloromanischen Sprachsatzes. Basel: Zbinden. [↗](http://atilf.atilf.fr/tlfi.htm)
26. NOTES 1. The Oxford English dictionary (OED) suggests 1602 for the first attestation of emotion in the sense [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=NOTES+1%2E+The+Oxford+English+dictionary+%28OED%29+suggests+1602+for+the+first+attestation+of+emotion+in+the+sense)

*Updated 2 November 2026*