---
title: "Cross-lingual Word Clusters for Direct — Täckström 2012"
description: "Word cluster features learned from unlabeled text are known to help structured prediction."
authors: ["Oscar Täckström", "Ryan McDonald", "Jakob Uszkoreit"]
year: 2012
venue: "Proceedings of the 2012 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/N12-1052/"
licence: "CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (ACL Anthology, before 2016)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/tackstrom-2012-cross-lingual-word-clusters-direct/"
---
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# Cross-lingual Word Clusters for Direct Transfer of Linguistic Structure

**Authors:** [Oscar Täckström](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/oscar-tackstrom/), [Ryan McDonald](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/ryan-mcdonald/), [Jakob Uszkoreit](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/jakob-uszkoreit/) · **Year:** 2012 · **Venue:** Proceedings of the 2012 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies · **Licence:** [CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (ACL Anthology, before 2016)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/N12-1052/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/N12-1052.pdf) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W1818534184)

**Citations:** 220 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · [120](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/tackstrom-2012-cross-lingual-word-clusters-direct/cited-by/) in our library, of the 140884 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
Word cluster features learned from unlabeled text are known to help structured prediction. However, the evidence came mostly from English, and no one had combined such features with cross-lingual transfer. The authors address both gaps.

First, they induce monolingual clusters with the predictive class bigram model of Uszkoreit and Brants (2008) on large newswire corpora. They add cluster-based templates to a transition-based dependency parser and a CRF named-entity tagger, testing 13 languages for parsing and 4 for NER.

Second, they propose two ways to obtain clusters that are consistent across languages:
- projecting English clusters to a target language through word alignments;
- jointly clustering monolingual data in both languages, with alignments from parallel data acting as constraints.

These cross-lingual clusters are added to delexicalized direct-transfer models trained on English, following McDonald et al. (2011). In the supervised setting, cluster features never lowered accuracy. In transfer, they cut relative parsing error by up to 13% and NER error by up to 26%. The work shows that semi-supervised features and cross-lingual transfer can be combined, offering a cheap route to tools for resource-poor languages.

## Key points
- **Clustering setup:** 256 clusters over the 1 million most frequent word types per language, learned with the distributed exchange algorithm. DA had the smallest amount of unlabeled newswire, at 0.8 billion tokens, while EN had the largest, at 121.6 billion tokens.
- **Supervised parsing:** average LAS rose from 83.0 to 84.0 across 13 languages, with gains significant everywhere except FR and NL.
  - Parser: arc-eager, beam of 8, averaged structured perceptron, features of Zhang and Nivre (2011).
  - Treebanks: CoNLL 2006/2007, Penn WSJ Treebank, French Treebank, Sejong Korean Treebank, SynTagRus, Penn Chinese Treebank v6.
- **Monolingual NER:** on the CoNLL 2002/2003 development sets for DE, EN, ES and NL, average F1 improved from 76.3 to 83.0 with clusters.
- **Direct-transfer NER from English (test set):** average F1 was 39.1 without clusters, 50.2 with projected clusters, and 52.7 with X-LINGUAL CLUSTERS. This is a 22% average error reduction, reaching 26% for ES. For entity-boundary detection alone, F1 rose from 68.1 to 75.8.
- **Word alignments:** produced with the dual decomposition aligner of DeNero and Macherey (2011) on 10.5–12.1 million sentences of aligned web data.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

Fields: [Linguistics & languages](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/linguistics/)

Topics: [Multilingual & cross-lingual NLP](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/multilingual-nlp/)

## Institutions

- [Google](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/companies/google/) — Company, Mountain View, United States · 272 works · 255 532 citations
- [Uppsala University](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/uppsala-university/) — University, Uppsala, Sweden · 46 works · 11 454 citations
- [Swedish Institute of Computer Science](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/ngos/swedish-institute-of-computer-science/) — Nonprofit, Kista, Sweden · 2 works · 394 citations

## Cite

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{tackstrom2012cross,
  title = {{Cross-lingual Word Clusters for Direct Transfer of Linguistic Structure}},
  author = {Täckström, Oscar and McDonald, Ryan and Uszkoreit, Jakob},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2012 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies},
  year = {2012},
  url = {https://aclanthology.org/N12-1052/}
}
```

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