---
title: "Language Choice in Nigerian Social Media Hate Speech (2026)"
description: "The paper asks whether the choice of language variety matters in Nigerian online hate… 94.1% recall. 41 references, cited by 1 paper here."
authors: ["Nneoma C Udeze", "Rob Voigt"]
year: 2026
venue: "Proceedings of the 7th Workshop on African Natural Language Processing (AfricaNLP 2026)"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/2026.africanlp-main.9/"
doi: "10.18653/v1/2026.africanlp-main.9"
licence: "CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/udeze-2026-language-choice-nigerian-social-media/"
---
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# Language Choice in Nigerian Social Media Hate Speech

**Authors:** Nneoma C Udeze and [Rob Voigt](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/rob-voigt/) · **Year:** 2026 · **Venue:** [Proceedings of the 7th Workshop on African Natural Language Processing (AfricaNLP 2026)](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/africanlp/) ([Workshop on African Natural Language Processing 2026](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/africanlp/2026/)) · **Publisher:** [Association for Computational Linguistics](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/association-for-computational-linguistics/) · **Licence:** [CC BY 4.0 (ACL Anthology)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/2026.africanlp-main.9/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/2026.africanlp-main.9.pdf) · [DOI 10.18653/v1/2026.africanlp-main.9](https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/2026.africanlp-main.9) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W7140087518)

**Citations:** 0 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · 1 in our library, of the 149,439 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
The paper asks whether the choice of language variety matters in Nigerian online hate speech, with a focus on Nigerian Pidgin (NP). NP is widely spoken and associated with informality and solidarity, but its role in hostile discourse had not been studied. The authors re-annotated a balanced sample from the NaijaHate Twitter Corpus and built a new set of Instagram comments from Instablog9ja. Every post was manually labeled for class, language variety, target group and hate type. They then combined regression modeling, lexical and multi-word pattern analysis, and an error analysis of the Twitter-trained NaijaXLM-T classifier applied to Instagram.

NP turns up disproportionately in offensive and hateful posts, most often aimed at Hausa people, women and LGBTQ+ people. Insults are the most common hate strategy. The Twitter-trained classifier labels far too much Instagram content as hate. The authors conclude that NP is a deliberate rhetorical tool for hostility. For NLP, this means NP-specific resources, attention to figurative language, and cross-platform domain adaptation are needed.

## Key points
- **Data:**
  - A stratified sample of 6,000 tweets (2,000 each of neutral, offensive and hateful) drawn from the roughly 36,000-tweet NaijaHate corpus, collected July 2021 to July 2023.
  - About 35,000 Instagram comments scraped from Instablog9ja with Instaloader (July–September 2024). Of these, 1,500 (500 per class) were manually re-annotated.
- **Annotation scheme:** The hierarchical schema, adapted from Bahador (2020), covers:
  - three classes;
  - five varieties (English, NP, Yoruba, Igbo, Hausa);
  - twelve target groups;
  - four categories of hate: insulting, dehumanizing, demonizing, and calling for violence.
- **Classifier performance:** Checked against human labels, the NaijaXLM-T classifier (XLM-R fine-tuned on NaijaHate) reached 94.1% recall but only 38.0% precision on the hate class. This shows it heavily over-predicts hate across domains.
- **Main findings:** NP is overrepresented in hostile content, mainly targeting Hausa, women and LGBTQ+ groups, and insults dominate. The authors also note that NP overlaps with Yoruba loanwords, which complicates automatic modeling.
- **Resources and limitations:**
  - The annotated Instagram dataset is released on GitHub.
  - The data has no user demographics, the annotators were not specialists, and the offensive-versus-hateful boundary remains hard to draw.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

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## Cite

Cite as: Nneoma C Udeze and Rob Voigt. 2026. Language Choice in Nigerian Social Media Hate Speech. Proceedings of the 7th Workshop on African Natural Language Processing (AfricaNLP 2026).

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{udeze2026language,
  title = {{Language Choice in Nigerian Social Media Hate Speech}},
  author = {Nneoma C Udeze and Rob Voigt},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 7th Workshop on African Natural Language Processing (AfricaNLP 2026)},
  year = {2026},
  doi = {10.18653/v1/2026.africanlp-main.9},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/2026.africanlp-main.9}
}
```

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39. William Warner and Julia Hirschberg. 2012. [Detecting hate speech on the world wide web](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/warner-2012-detecting-hate-speech-world-wide/). In Proceedings of the second workshop on language in social media, pages 19–26.
40. Savvas Zannettou, Mai ElSherief, Elizabeth Belding, Shirin Nilizadeh, and Gianluca Stringhini. 2020. Measuring and characterizing hate speech on news websites. In Proceedings of the 12th ACM conference on web science, pages 125–134. [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Savvas+Zannettou%2C+Mai+ElSherief%2C+Elizabeth+Belding%2C+Shirin+Nilizadeh%2C+and+Gianluca+Stringhini%2E+2020%2E+Measuring+and+characterizing+hate+speech+on+news+websites%2E+In+Proceedings+of+the+12th+ACM+conferenc)
41. Platform Targeted Insults Dehumanization Demonization Twitter Women Lgbtq+ Incitement to violence group women are actually the greatest hypocrites of all time, all these trolls coz it was not the other way round? A creature that always wants to be on the receiving end... Enjoy your family... play go… [find](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Platform+Targeted+Insults+Dehumanization+Demonization+Twitter+Women+Lgbtq%2B+Incitement+to+violence+group+women+are+actually+the+greatest+hypocrites+of+all+time%2C+all+these+trolls+coz+it+was+not+the+othe)

*Updated 31 October 2026*