---
title: "When Are Tutorial Dialogues More Effective Than Reading? (2007)"
description: "The paper tests the \"interaction hypothesis\": the claim that one-on-one natural-language tutoring, by a… 79 references, cited by 10 papers here."
authors: ["Kurt VanLehn", "Arthur C. Graesser", "G. Tanner Jackson", "Pamela Jordan", "Andrew Olney", "Carolyn P. Rosé"]
year: 2007
venue: "Cognitive Science 31(1)"
source: "https://doi.org/10.1080/03640210709336984"
doi: "10.1080/03640210709336984"
licence: "All rights reserved — free to read at the source"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/vanlehn-2007-tutorial-dialogues-more-effective-than/"
---
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# When Are Tutorial Dialogues More Effective Than Reading?

**Authors:** Kurt VanLehn, Arthur C. Graesser, G. Tanner Jackson, Pamela Jordan, Andrew Olney and [Carolyn P. Rosé](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/carolyn-penstein-rose/) · **Year:** 2007 · **Venue:** [Cognitive Science 31(1)](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/cognitive-science/) ([Cognitive Science 2007](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/venues/cognitive-science/2007/)) · **Publisher:** [Wiley](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/publishers/wiley/) · **Licence:** All rights reserved — free to read at the source

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://doi.org/10.1080/03640210709336984) · [PDF](https://itgs.ict.usc.edu/papers/06CS_KVL_AG.pdf) · [DOI 10.1080/03640210709336984](https://doi.org/10.1080/03640210709336984) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W2165079349)

**Citations:** 378 citations (OpenAlex, 2026-10-14) · [10](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/vanlehn-2007-tutorial-dialogues-more-effective-than/cited-by/) in our library, of the 149,439 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
The paper tests the "interaction hypothesis": the claim that one-on-one natural-language tutoring, by a human or a computer, produces more learning than a less interactive condition covering identical content. A literature review shows mixed evidence. Tutoring usually beats passive reading or lecturing, but it often fails to beat controls in which students also solve problems and get feedback. The authors ran seven experiments in qualitative (conceptual) physics. They compared human tutors, the dialogue systems Why2-Atlas and Why2-AutoTutor (the latter based on latent semantic analysis), and reading-based conditions. The main control was "canned text remediation": students worked the same problems and then read text matching the tutorial content. When students already had the prerequisite knowledge for the material, tutoring and canned text produced roughly equal gains. Tutoring had a clear advantage only when novices studied content pitched above their current level. The work matters because it narrows when costly dialogue technology actually pays off. It also shows that controlling for content is essential when evaluating tutoring.

## Key points
- The review groups prior studies by outcome. Studies supporting the hypothesis (e.g., Wood, Wood & Middleton 1978; Swanson 1992; Evens & Michael) mostly used passive reading or lecture controls. Null results (e.g., Chi et al. 2001; Rosé et al. 2001) came from controls that also involved active work.
- Experiments 1 and 3 used intermediate students on intermediate content and found tutoring = canned text remediation. In Exp. 3, immediate multiple-choice scores were .725 for Why2-AutoTutor vs. .650 for canned text (p = .084, not significant).
- In Experiment 2, tutoring outperformed both a textbook condition and no instruction, and the textbook and no-instruction conditions did not differ.
- Experiments 4 and 5 used novices on intermediate content, and tutoring beat canned text. In Exp. 4, adjusted multiple-choice posttest scores were .740 for spoken human tutoring, .660 for typed human tutoring, and .567 for canned text.
- Experiments 6 and 7 used novices on novice-level content. Why2-Atlas, Why2-AutoTutor, canned text remediation, and text-only reading all yielded similar learning.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

## Institutions

- [Carnegie Mellon University](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/carnegie-mellon-university/) — University, Pittsburgh, United States · 633 works · 195,218 citations
- [University of Pittsburgh](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/university-of-pittsburgh/) — University, Pittsburgh, United States · 68 works · 25,442 citations
- [University of Memphis](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/universities/university-of-memphis/) — University, Memphis, United States · 5 works · 713 citations

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🧭 Topics (1): [🗨️ Dialogue systems](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/dialogue-systems/) · 664 works

## Cite

Cite as: Kurt VanLehn, Arthur C. Graesser, G. Tanner Jackson, Pamela Jordan, Andrew Olney and Carolyn P. Rosé. 2007. When Are Tutorial Dialogues More Effective Than Reading?. Cognitive Science 31(1).

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{vanlehn2007when,
  title = {{When Are Tutorial Dialogues More Effective Than Reading?}},
  author = {Kurt VanLehn, Arthur C. Graesser, G. Tanner Jackson, Pamela Jordan, Andrew Olney and Carolyn P. Rosé},
  booktitle = {Cognitive Science 31(1)},
  year = {2007},
  doi = {10.1080/03640210709336984},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/03640210709336984}
}
```

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## References

79 references, 1 of them with a card of ours. ↗ leads to the work, «find» searches for one we have no id for yet.

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*Updated 3 November 2026*