---
title: "End-to-end learning of semantic role labeling — Zhou 2015"
description: "Zhou and Xu ask whether semantic role labeling (SRL) can be done well without syntactic parsing."
authors: ["Jie Zhou", "Wei Xu"]
year: 2015
venue: "Proceedings of the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 7th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (Volume 1: Long Papers)"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/P15-1109/"
doi: "10.3115/v1/p15-1109"
licence: "CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (ACL Anthology, before 2016)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/zhou-2015-end-end-learning-semantic-role/"
---
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# End-to-end learning of semantic role labeling using recurrent neural networks

**Authors:** [Jie Zhou](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/jie-zhou/), [Wei Xu](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/authors/wei-xu/) · **Year:** 2015 · **Venue:** Proceedings of the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 7th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (Volume 1: Long Papers) · **Licence:** [CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 (ACL Anthology, before 2016)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/P15-1109/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/P15-1109.pdf) · [DOI 10.3115/v1/p15-1109](https://doi.org/10.3115/v1/p15-1109) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W2251599843)

**Citations:** 333 citations (openalex-snapshot · 2026-10-14) · [129](#cited-by) in our library, of the 140884 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
Zhou and Xu ask whether semantic role labeling (SRL) can be done well without syntactic parsing. Earlier strong systems relied on parse trees, hand-crafted feature templates and combinations of several parsers, and the earlier parser-free neural attempt by Collobert et al. (2011) fell short. The authors build an end-to-end tagger called deep bi-directional LSTM (DB-LSTM). It stacks pairs of LSTM layers that alternate between forward and backward directions, eight layers in total, with a CRF layer on top for tag sequence prediction. The input is the raw words plus a few simple predicate-related features; no POS tags or parses are used. On the CoNLL-2005 shared task the model reaches F1 = 81.07, beating the previous best parser-combination system, and on CoNLL-2012 it gets F1 = 81.27. It also runs fast, at about 6.7k tokens per second. Analysis shows its advantage grows on longer sentences, and its internal gates appear to encode syntactic distance. The work matters because it shows SRL does not need to depend on brittle, language-specific parsing pipelines.

## Key points
- The architecture is DB-LSTM: 8 LSTM layers stacked as forward/backward pairs, where each layer feeds the next in the reversed direction, with a CRF output layer. The authors say this topology is critical, and that model depth is the largest source of improvement.
- Only four features are used:
  - the argument word (argu),
  - the predicate word (pred),
  - the predicate context window (ctx-p),
  - a binary region mark (m_r) that flags words inside that window.
- Results:
  - CoNLL-2005: F1 81.07, which is +3.15 on test and +2.20 on dev over Koomen et al. (2005). Koomen's system combines 5 parse trees from two parsers. Against Koomen's best single system, the dev gain is +4.79.
  - Gains appear on both the WSJ and Brown test sets.
  - CoNLL-2012: F1 81.27.
- Collobert et al.'s model without parse features scores 74.15, which is 6.92 below DB-LSTM. Its cost is also O(n_p·L²), while DB-LSTM is linear at O(n_p·L).
- In the 7th LSTM layer, the average forget-gate value rises monotonically with the dependency-tree distance between argument and predicate.

## Interesting ideas
- **Alternating-direction stacking.** Instead of running two parallel LSTMs and concatenating them, each layer reads the previous layer's output in the opposite direction. This is a simple way to get deep two-sided context and could carry over to other sequence taggers such as NER or morphology tagging.
- **Cheap structural hints instead of parses.** A small window of words around the predicate, plus a flag marking that window, disambiguates which predicate is meant (for example, when the same word occurs twice). This kind of minimal marker could condition any per-target labeling task without needing a parser, which helps for lower-resource languages.
- **One pass per target.** The sentence is run once for each predicate, giving cost linear in sentence length rather than quadratic. This is a reusable pattern for tasks keyed on a target, such as relation or event extraction.
- **Probing gates against linguistic structure.** Comparing forget-gate activations with gold dependency distance is a lightweight interpretability check. It could test whether a model has implicitly learned syntax for a given language or treebank.
- **Breaking down errors by sentence length.** Binning F1 by length (10-word bins) and comparing against a baseline shows where the model's long-range strength actually pays off. This evaluation habit is useful whenever claims about long-distance dependencies are made.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

Fields: [Natural language processing](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/shelves/nlp/)

Topics: [Semantic role labeling](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/semantic-role-labeling/) · [Part-of-speech tagging](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/topics/part-of-speech-tagging/)

## Cited by

Cited by

129 papers of our library cite it (of the 140884 whose bibliographies we read); 20 of them have a page here, 109 not yet.

- [Globally Normalized Transition-Based Neural Networks](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/andor-2016-globally-normalized-transition-based-neural/)
- [Multi-view and multi-task training of RST discourse parsers](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/braud-2016-multi-view-multi-task-training/)
- [Large-Scale QA-SRL Parsing](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/fitzgerald-2018-large-scale-qa-srl-parsing/)
- [AllenNLP: A Deep Semantic Natural Language Processing Platform](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/gardner-2018-allennlp-deep-semantic-natural-language/)
- [Deep Semantic Role Labeling: What Works and What's Next](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/he-2017-deep-semantic-role-labeling-what/)
- [Jointly Predicting Predicates and Arguments in Neural Semantic Role Labeling](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/he-2018-jointly-predicting-predicates-arguments-neural/)
- [An Empirical Study of Contextual Data Augmentation for Japanese Zero Anaphora Resolution](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/konno-2020-empirical-study-contextual-data-augmentation/)
- [A Mention-Ranking Model for Abstract Anaphora Resolution](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/marasovic-2017-mention-ranking-model-abstract-anaphora/)
- [Encoding Sentences with Graph Convolutional Networks for Semantic Role Labeling](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/marcheggiani-2017-encoding-sentences-graph-convolutional-networks/)
- [A Simple and Accurate Syntax-Agnostic Neural Model for Dependency-based Semantic Role Labeling](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/marcheggiani-2017-simple-accurate-syntax-agnostic-neural/)
- [The Natural Language Decathlon: Multitask Learning as Question Answering](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/mccann-2018-natural-language-decathlon-multitask-learning/)
- [context2vec: Learning Generic Context Embedding with Bidirectional LSTM](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/melamud-2016-context2vec-learning-generic-context-embedding/)
- [Multilingual Part-of-Speech Tagging with Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory Models and Auxiliary Loss](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/plank-2016-multilingual-part-speech-tagging-bidirectional/)
- [Neural Semantic Role Labeling with Dependency Path Embeddings](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/roth-2016-neural-semantic-role-labeling-dependency/)
- [Semantic Role Labeling as Syntactic Dependency Parsing](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/shi-2020-semantic-role-labeling-as-syntactic/)
- [Entity-Centric Joint Modeling of Japanese Coreference Resolution and Predicate Argument Structure Analysis](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/shibata-2018-entity-centric-joint-modeling-japanese/)
- [Linguistically-Informed Self-Attention for Semantic Role Labeling](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/strubell-2018-linguistically-informed-self-attention-semantic/)
- [Frame-Semantic Parsing with Softmax-Margin Segmental RNNs and a Syntactic Scaffold](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/swayamdipta-2017-frame-semantic-parsing-softmax-margin/)
- [Deep Semantic Role Labeling with Self-Attention](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/tan-2017-deep-semantic-role-labeling-self/)
- [A Joint Sequential and Relational Model for Frame-Semantic Parsing](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/yang-2017-joint-sequential-relational-model-frame/)

## Cite

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{zhou2015end,
  title = {{End-to-end learning of semantic role labeling using recurrent neural networks}},
  author = {Zhou, Jie and Xu, Wei},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 7th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (Volume 1: Long Papers)},
  year = {2015},
  doi = {10.3115/v1/p15-1109},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.3115/v1/p15-1109}
}
```

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