---
title: "NaijaSenti: A Nigerian Twitter Sentiment — Muhammad 2022"
description: "Sentiment analysis tools are mostly built for data-rich languages, so Nigerian languages have had little support."
authors: ["Shamsuddeen Hassan Muhammad", "David Ifeoluwa Adelani", "Sebastian Ruder", "Ibrahim Sa'id Ahmad", "Idris Abdulmumin", "Bello Shehu Bello", "Monojit Choudhury", "Chris Chinenye Emezue", "Saheed Salahudeen Abdullahi", "Anuoluwapo Aremu", "Alípio Jorge", "Pavel Brazdil"]
year: 2022
venue: "Proceedings of the Thirteenth Language Resources and Evaluation Conference"
source: "https://aclanthology.org/2022.lrec-1.63/"
licence: "CC BY-NC 4.0 (ELRA, LREC proceedings)"
licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/"
summary_licence: "Elamur Cosmic License"
canonical: "https://research.elamur.ai/free/papers/muhammad-2022-naijasenti-nigerian-twitter-sentiment-corpus/"
---
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# NaijaSenti: A Nigerian Twitter Sentiment Corpus for Multilingual Sentiment Analysis

**Authors:** Shamsuddeen Hassan Muhammad, [David Ifeoluwa Adelani](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/authors/david-ifeoluwa-adelani/), [Sebastian Ruder](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/authors/sebastian-ruder/), Ibrahim Sa'id Ahmad, Idris Abdulmumin, Bello Shehu Bello, [Monojit Choudhury](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/authors/monojit-choudhury/), Chris Chinenye Emezue, Saheed Salahudeen Abdullahi, Anuoluwapo Aremu, Alípio Jorge, Pavel Brazdil · **Year:** 2022 · **Venue:** Proceedings of the Thirteenth Language Resources and Evaluation Conference · **Licence:** [CC BY-NC 4.0 (ELRA, LREC proceedings)](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/)

**Links:** [Publisher's page](https://aclanthology.org/2022.lrec-1.63/) · [PDF](https://aclanthology.org/2022.lrec-1.63.pdf) · [OpenAlex](https://openalex.org/W4221155692)

**Citations:** 58 citations (openalex-snapshot · 2026-10-14) · [69](#cited-by) in our library, of the 140673 papers whose bibliographies we read

## Summary
Sentiment analysis tools are mostly built for data-rich languages, so Nigerian languages have had little support. This paper presents NaijaSenti, which the authors describe as the first large, human-labelled Twitter sentiment corpus for Hausa, Igbo, Yorùbá and Nigerian Pidgin (Naija). The abstract puts it at roughly 30,000 tweets per language, and many of them are code-mixed.

The Twitter API cannot filter by these languages, so the authors built their own collection pipeline. It combines:
- query terms checked by native speakers, paired with emojis,
- location-restricted searches,
- hashtags and handles of local-language news accounts,
- automatic language identification,
- pre-filtering with a machine-translated sentiment lexicon.

Native speakers then labelled the tweets using a multi-class scheme. The authors benchmarked several pre-trained multilingual models and transfer strategies. Models that had seen African-language text, such as AfriBERTa, or that went through language-adaptive fine-tuning, generally performed best.

The datasets, models, lexicons and code are all released. This gives a reusable base for sentiment research and other NLP work in under-represented languages.

## Key points
- The corpus covers four languages: Hausa (hau), Igbo (ibo), Nigerian Pidgin (pcm) and Yorùbá (yor). Code-switching is common; about 43% of Igbo tweets mix Igbo with English.
- Of six earlier sentiment datasets for these languages, only two were openly available. Several of them relied on translation rather than native annotation.
- The annotation guide is adapted from Mohammad (2016). It defines five classes, including POS, NEG, NEU and MIX (the fifth class name is cut off in the provided text).
- Tweets were cleaned before annotation:
  - retweets and duplicates were dropped,
  - URLs and mentions were stripped,
  - text was lowercased,
  - tweets shorter than three words were discarded.
- Fine-tuning used HuggingFace with batch size 32, max sequence length 128 and 20 epochs. The learning rate was 5e-5 for most models and 2e-5 for XLM-R and RemBERT so they would converge. The release also includes manually built sentiment lexicons for Hausa, Igbo and Yorùbá.

## Interesting ideas
- **Geographic radius instead of an unsupported language filter.** The authors restricted searches to circles of about 25 miles around areas where each language dominates. This helps whenever an API has no language parameter for your target language.
- **Watch for shared stopwords across languages.** Common words can belong to several neighbouring languages; for example, querying "nke" for Igbo returned Hausa tweets. Seed-word queries therefore need a separate language-ID pass afterwards. For Pidgin, which off-the-shelf detectors do not support, the authors built a simple n-gram detector from the stopword list.
- **Pre-filter with a cheap translated lexicon before paying annotators.** Machine-translating the Affin lexicon and keeping only tweets that contain its terms raises the share of sentiment-bearing items sent for annotation. Combining stopwords with happy or sad emojis serves the same purpose.
- **Cap tweets per conversation.** In the Hausa handle-based data, a single @bbchausa thread made up 54% of the tweets. Limiting how many tweets one conversation can contribute keeps a few popular threads from skewing the corpus by topic.
- **Adapt the encoder to the language before fine-tuning.** Language-adaptive fine-tuning, or choosing models pre-trained on African-language text, gave the strongest results. This suggests that a short pass of continued pre-training on unlabelled target-language text is a sensible default for any low-resource classification task.

*Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.*

Fields: [Linguistics & languages](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/shelves/linguistics/)

## Cited by

Cited by

69 papers of our library cite it (of the 140673 whose bibliographies we read); 2 of them have a page here, 67 not yet.

- [Adapting Pre-trained Language Models to African Languages via Multilingual Adaptive Fine-Tuning](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/papers/alabi-2022-adapting-pre-trained-language-models/)
- [Evaluating Emotion Arcs Across Languages: Bridging the Global Divide in Sentiment Analysis](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/papers/teodorescu-2023-evaluating-emotion-arcs-across-languages/)

## Cite

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work.

```bibtex
@inproceedings{muhammad2022naijasenti,
  title = {{NaijaSenti: A Nigerian Twitter Sentiment Corpus for Multilingual Sentiment Analysis}},
  author = {Muhammad, Shamsuddeen Hassan and Adelani, David Ifeoluwa and Ruder, Sebastian and Ahmad, Ibrahim Sa'id and Abdulmumin, Idris and Bello, Bello Shehu and Choudhury, Monojit and Emezue, Chris Chinenye and Abdullahi, Saheed Salahudeen and Aremu, Anuoluwapo and Jorge, Alípio and Brazdil, Pavel},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the Thirteenth Language Resources and Evaluation Conference},
  year = {2022},
  doi = {10.63317/2anx3vqhsxdm},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.63317/2anx3vqhsxdm}
}
```

- [← previous MUSS: Multilingual Unsupervised Sentence Simplification by Mining Paraphrases](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/papers/martin-2022-muss-multilingual-unsupervised-sentence-simplification/)
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- [↑ back to papers of 2022](https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/papers/2022/page/2/)

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